S.L. Omanakutten*
Abstract
From time immemorial oppression has been the common lot of the women of the world. In the primitive society very often enjoy advantages denied to their sisters of so called civilized society. They were more autonomous in their habits and attitudes, because the economic structure of their society was simpler. Men and women shared their labours and their gains. Hallow pretences did not intrude there with mock standards of false responsibility to vitiate life. But with the rise of private property, kingdoms and empires, that simplicity was destroyed. More complicated economic forms emerged. The frame work of society got rapid transformation and the position of woman began changing along with it. The old simple life is broken up into a class-society with the leisured rich exploiting the toiling masses. Manual labour become a sign of degradation. The women become victims of this class determined society. As these changes were of a slow process, these changes and their consequences did not clearly occur in the early Indian Society.
“ Rig-Veda” is recognized as the oldest literary product in the world, and a number of the hymns or devotional poems included in it are admitted to have been written by women of the time.1 Vedic era was the golden era so far as equality of status and personal freedom of women is concerned. During that period women enjoyed a fair amount of freedom and equality with men.
The Vedic society was a patriarchal one and hence the father was the head of the family. All efforts were therefore made to secure the birth of a son.2 Though the society was a patriarchal society, the Rig Veda shows them as equals to men as regards access to capacity for the highest knowledge even the knowledge of the absolute or the Brahma.3 Women studied with men in Gurukul and there are instances of many Brahmavadinis like Ghosa, Gargi and Maithreyi who were well versed in Vedas and actively in intellectual and philosophical discussions.4
The entire Rig Veda is made up of suktas and hymns. Though the majority of these hymns were the work of male rishis, who were capable of direct version of Truth and represented the highest degree of spiritual enlightenment, the Rig Veda contains hymns which were revealed by women sears also.5 The latter were called rishikas. The Rig Veda speaks of the following rishikas, viz., Romasa, Lopamudra, Apata, Kadru, Visvavara, Gosha, Juhu, Vagambhirini, Paulomi, Jarital, Sraddha Kamayani, Urvasi, Sarnga, Yami, Indrani, Savitri and Devayani. The Samaveda adds the following viz. Nodha or Purvarchchika, Akrishtabhasha, Sikalanivavari or Uttararchchik and Ganpayaha.6
The Brahmavadinis were the product of educational discipline of brahmacharya for which women also were eligible. The Rig Veda refers to young maidens completing their education as brahmacharinis and then gaining husbands.7 They had freedom to select their husbands. She herself loves or chooses her friend among the people who are handsome.8 Indeed a little later on the line, old customs of the Swayamwara in which the girl was given the privilege of choosing her husband out of many suitors, was originated and was not abolished till a long time afterwards.9 There are in the hymns traces of the existence of Polygamy though it was no doubt the exception. References are found that rishis married all atonce ten damsels. Polyandry also prevailed and the best example for was that the two Asvins had one wife.
The sacredness of the marriage tie and marriage rite is emphasized in Vedic literature by the description of a marriage in heaven, which forms the introduction to the grand wedding hymn given there marriage is however held sacred husband and wife were both rulers of the house (dampati) and approached the gods in united prayer.10 In ancient times widow marriage was not prohibited. On the other hand, distinct sanction of it in the rites which were prescribed for the widows performance before she entered into married life again.
It is therefore no wonder that the wife in ancient India, enjoyed with her husband full religious rights and regularly participated in religious ceremonies with him. In fact, the performance of such ceremonies would be invalid without the wife joining her husband as his full partner.11 Thus the Rig Veda accorded the highest social status to the woman of those days. The Vedic Aryans introduced the principle of anuloma or hypergamy (marriage upward) for women and decried pratiloma or hypogamy (marriage downward). The Vedic family was patriarchal. The marriage hymn paints to the practice of the bride-groom going to the bride’s house, where he marries her and whence after the marriage, he coveys the bride to his own house. In that new home, she has an honoured place as mistress of the household, looking after her father-in-law, mother-in-law and husband’s brothers and sisters.12
After the victory of the Aryans over the native Indians, they introduced slavery in Northern India. The Shudras (servile) performed all essential services. The Shudra women’s position became secondary. The conquered women taken as wives by Aryans, had no knowledge of the Vedic rituals which further degraded them.13 In the process of keeping familial balance in society. All women were declared ineligible for religious studies. Consequently, women’s role in Vedic rites and sacrifices turned out to be a mere formality as the days passed on. Moreover, women were debarred from ritual functions by virtue of being subject to pollution during menstruation and birth of a child. The customs of hypergamy and endogamy gave rise to Kulinism and dowry. In Kulinism, the marriage became a profession; a kulin married umpteen times. Due to the custom of dowry the girls became economic liability leading to infanticide in later days.14
The preceding account of the status of women in the Smriti period indicates that by the passage of time her status deteriorated. On the one hand, woman was kept in high esteem, but was denigrated on the other. She was allotted the domestic sphere of life. Her independence was snatched. She was deprived of education. Aspersions were cast on her character. Her position was inferior even to the man weak in character. The son of any description was higher in status in compariosn to daughter. A woman was described by a multitude of derogatory attributes. She was called fickel minded, sensual, seducer of men; given to falsehood, trickery. greed, impurity and thoughtless action; root of evil; inconsistent and curel. For her, only sacrament was marriage.15
Such us the position of women in Vedic time. Coming down to a later period of Indian History, the times of Mahabharata and the Ramayana, there was not much difference in their condtition. They hold the same position as they did before.16 In Mahabharata, the women, on the one hand, were treated with honour and adored: Where women were treated with honour the very Gods were said to be propitiated, and where women were not adored, all acts become fruitless. The Goddess of prospeiry (Srih) resideds within the woman who is given to truth and sincerity.17 A woman in mother’s role has been elevated to a very high position in Hindu religious literature. The Mahabharata says that mother excels in her greatness ten fathers and even the whole earth.18 There is no guru like mother. Even a Sanyasi is expected to touch the feet of his mother.
On the other hand, there is a reverse description of the woman in the Mahabharata. It is said that the woman is the root of all evil, and that she is narrow minded. In Mahabharata female is described as a temptress and a lurer by nature.19 She always stands in need of protection by man. The woman is considered weak by nature. She naturally lacks the strength of mind to resist temptations. Stridharma (what a woman should do and what she should not do) are as follows: to serve her husband and his elders, to act as her husband’s companion in the performance of all dharmika acts, to be sweet in speech and manners and so forth. On the whole the woman cherishes a deeper attachment for her children.20 The woman in general is said to be capable of loving more strongly than man.
From time-immemorial, the Hindu women have been justly celebrated for the possession of domestic virtues such as devotion to husbands, affection to children, careful attention to household duties modesty, gentleness, hospitality. Nothing can be more beautiful and touching than the pictures of domestic and social happiness that the Ramayana and the Mahabharata abound with; and many are the high souled heroines, showing clearly that in those days there was much dignity and elevation about female character.21
Though wives were respected, they were not treated as equals to their husbands. These two great epics preached that though of bad conduct or debanched or even devoid of good qualities, a husband must always be served like a god by a good wife. For women there is no separate sacrifice, nor vow nor even fast; if a woman obeys her husband by that she is exalted in heaven.22
References
1. Margaret E. Cousins, The Awakening of Asian Woman hood, Madras, 1922, p.84
2. Neera Desao, Woman in Modern India, Vora&Co, Bombay, 1957, p.11.
3. Tara Ali Baig (ed), Women of India, Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India, 1957, p.1.
4. Rig Veda, I, 179, Verses 28, Kumbakonam Edition, 1921, p.91.
5. Tara Ali Baig, (ed), op.cit., pp.1-2.
6. Ibid., p.1.
7. Yajneswara, C., (ed), Indian Social Reform (Vol.II), Chintamani Thompson & Co., Madras, 1901, p.337.
8. Papers on Indian Reform, “The Women of India and what can be Done for them”, Madras, 1888, p.4.
9. Yanjeswara, C., (ed), Loc.cit., p.337.
10. Papers on Indian Reform, Loc.cit., p.4.
11. Tara Ali Baig, (ed), op.cit., p.2.
12. Neelam Upadhyay and Rekha Pandey, Women in India Past and Present, Allahabad, p.3.
13. Tara Ali Baig, (ed), op.cit., p.4.
14. Neelam Upadhyay and Rekha Pandey, op.cit., pp.5-7.
15. Ibid., p.11.
16. Yanjeswara, C., (ed), op.cit., p.338.
17. Krishnacharya, T.R., The Mahabharata, Nirnayasagar Press, Bombay, English trans.by Dutt, M.N., Anu 38, 7.
18. Kane, P.V., A History of Dharma – Sastras: Ancient and Medieval Religious and Civil Laws, 3 Vols, Bhandarkar oriental Research Institute, Poona, 1930, p.580.
19. Krishnacharya, T.R., Loc.cit., Anu, 38 – 39.
20. Neelam Upadhyay and Rekha Pandey, op.cit., pp. 12 – 13.
21. Yanjeswara, C., (ed), op.cit., p.338.
22. Neelam Upadhyay and Rekha Pandey, op.cit., p. 15.