Mrs. V. Dhana Lekshmi*
* Ph.D Research scholar, Deptartment of History, S.T.Hindu College, Nagercoil.
ABSTRACT
Tamilnadu was under the control of three royal families, the Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas. During the middle period of the 9thCentury one Vijayalaya founded a powerful empire which grew into prominence during the period of their successors especially Rajaraja and Rajendra. In the beginning of the 10thCentury the Chola monarchs introduced a series of social reforms for the benefit of the people as a whole. They divided the kingdom into provinces. Provinces were divided into districts and districts were divided into taluks. Each taluk was divided into villages. Villages had separate councils to administrator. Elected assembly existed in the villages. So village administration figured as the primary administrative unit of the Cholas. At present the Indian government follows this principle of the Cholas in giving importance to the villagers.
INTRODUCTION
The Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas, the three prominent empires of South India had an alarming growth up to 3rd Century. The period between 1st and 3rd Century is known as the period of the Sangam. The growth of the Sangam period was thwarted by the Kalabra interregnum. The Kalabras extinguished the powers of the Tamil kingdoms and the Kalabra rule became predominant till the 6th Century A.D. Simha Vishnu, the Pallava King and Kadungon, the Pandyan King combined together and drove out the Kalabras. Still the Chola revival was not effected. The Cholas had to wait for a very long time for their rejuvenation which was brought in 850 A.D. by Vijayalayan1. The caste system was the basis of the social organization under the Cholas. Society was divided into a number of social groups or castes. Each caste was hereditary and constituted an occupational group. Brahmins occupied a privileged position in the society. They combined both religious authority and economic power. They were exempted from taxes, owned and enjoyed land with full royal support.
Their main duties included learning and teaching of the Vedas and performing rituals and ceremonies. Some of them were more adventurous and engaged themselves in trade. They were given lighter punishments in case of offences committed. The almost total absence of Kshatriya institutions necessitated an alliance between the Kshatriya and the dominant peasantry. The nattars were the dominant peasant community, and the cultivators were the subordinate client group of the nattars. The newly assimilated castes from marginal tracts were often combined in mass groupings of Idangai (left hand) and Valangai (right hand).
SOCIETY OF CHOLAS
The Chola society was a peaceful one. There were different sections in the society. At the same time, the society was based on ‘varnasrama’. According to the varnasrama, society was divided into four major divisions namely Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sutras. The poor and privileged people lived in slums. Bonded labourers were also there. Professionals like carpenters, weavers, black-smiths, masons, and gold-smiths also lived there. Slavery also existed. The details about the sale of slaves are recorded in the inscriptions. Greater social freedom prevailed among the upper classes.
GROUPS OF VALANGAI AND IDANGAI
Valangai and caste groups were also there. 98 castes formed parts of the Valangai (right hand) and there were ninety eight castes in the Idangai (left hand) group. There were disputes among these groups. A story had been told about the origin of the division of these two groups. When the Sangam Chola King Karikala enquired these disputes, the group which stood on the right hand side of the King was called Valangai group. The group that stood on the left hand side of the King was known as Idangai group. Valangai group had enjoyed more concessions from the government and privileges in the society. They had the privilege of using palanquins, umbrellas and chapels. Women of Valangai group rounded the upper-cloth across the right shoulder. The Idangai group was considered socially inferior. They did not enjoy any right. They paid heavy taxes.
ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM
Since then the Chola monarchs especially Rajaraja, Rajendra, Kulothunga I and III strove hard for the uplift of the poor people. The Cholas paved the way and laid the foundation for the future administrative and social progress of the people of Tamilnadu.
The Cholas captured the places up to Tungabatra and created a vast empire. This extensive empire could not be controlled from one centre. So they created a new type of administrative system which is equivalent to the present federal structure of India. At present India is divided into States, States into districts and districts into taluks, and taluks into villages, towns and corporations. No State can be segregated from the Indian union.
This federal structure was first and foremost introduced by the Chola Kings. The Chola Kings divided their empire into mandalams which is equivalent to the present State. Mandalam was divided into valanadu2 which is equivalent to the present district. The valanadu was divided into nadus3 which is equivalent to the present taluk. Each nadu was divided into nagarams (the present town) and villages. Thus the present city, towns and villages existed in the Chola kingdom. This federal structure was later on developed by the British and after wards incorporated into the Indian constitution by Dr.Ambetkar. So in the very creation of the Indian Union Cholas were the forefathers.
They introduced social changes for the progress of the poor children and women. They constructed temples and in these temples education was provided to the poor children and they were fed by the temple. Later on this was developed into Community Feeding Centers and paved the way for the present Midday Meals Scheme. Midday Meals Scheme was introduced first by Kamaraj. The initiative for the present Midday Meals Scheme was first taken up by the Cholas.
Women were held in high esteem and they were given equal share in administration. Kundavai, the sister of Rajaraja and Sembian Madevi the wife of Kandarathithiyan took active part in administration4. The practice of sati was not compulsory5. When Rajendra Chola died his wife Ulagamuzhuthudaiyal alone committed sati. All other wives of Rajendra Chola were not complled to commit sati. Likewise when Mathuranthaka Cholan died his wife Sembian Madevi did not commit sati. So the practice of sati was purely voluntary in the Chola Kingdom.
IRRIGATION
The Cholas gave importance to irrigational developments. The Chola monarchs were far sighted and took steps strenuously to channelyse Cauvery water. The entire administrative system of the Chola Empire was based on the very supply of water from Cauvery. Rivers were cut. Prominent lakes like Kandarathithiyan lake, Chembian Madevi Lake, Veeranam lake, Cholagangam Lake, Sundara Chola lake, Mathuranthagam Lake, Kulothunga Chola Lake and rivers like Veerachola Vada Aru, Mathuranthaga Vada Aru, Mudikonda Aru, Veera Cholan Aru, Uyyakondan Canal, the Big Canal, and the Pagur Reservoir were the prominent lakes and rivers which supplied water for irrigation. Thus the Chola Imperial emperor, their officers, the Mandaleeswarar, the nagarattaar, the nattar, ur assembly members and the royal house ladies especially the queen of Kandarathithiyan, Sembian Madevi and Kundavai the sister of Rajaraja I contributed their might in enhancing the irrigation system in the mandalams of the Chola Empire. The provincial administrators supervised the process of work which was going on in all these waterways6. Veeranam Lake erected by the Cholas even today stand as a source of drinking water for the people of Chennai. Tanjavoor is considered to be the granary of Tamilnadu. The effect to make Tanjavoor as the granary of Travancore was due to the hard and devoted services rendered by the Chola monarchs.
The Chola Kings and the local administration were well versed in erecting lengthy lakes like Gangaikonda Cholapuram (which has a length of 25 kilometers) and maintain them properly in facilitating the irrigational perspectives in the Chola Empire7. The entire water management was entrusted in the hands of the ‘Lake Boards’8. The emperors did not interfere in the distribution of water. The distribution and the management of the entire water ways was the sole responsibility of the ‘Lake Boards’. Whenever there was the necessity of the water supply to the fields the farmers had to report the matter to the concerned ‘Lake Boards’ and got their grievances redressed. But nowadays the system of water distribution is centralized. For each and every need, the farmers have to approach the government for the supply of water. This centralized system leads to considerable delay which causes the dry up of the lands consequently leading to the failure of crops. Irrigation system in the Imperial Chola Empire was deemed as a common one under ‘Lake Boards’. Thus the dieing up of crops was avoided9.
LITERACY AND EDUCATION
Chola Kings gave importance for the development of education. There were veda padasalas, Buddha Viharas and Jain Pallis. During the regin of Rajendra I, two Colleges were there, one at Rajaraja Chadurvedi Mangalam and the other at Tribhuvanam. The mutt of Thiruvaduthurai had run a School of medicine. Thirumukkudal temple was running a college and an hospital. Apart from the medical and religious education, general education was also imparted. Scholarships were also given to students.
The inscriptions of the regime indicate the presence of high level of literacy and education in the society. Court poets wrote the content and the talented artisans engraved the text in those inscriptions. People considered education in the contemporary sense as important. Circumstantial evidence suggests that some Village Councils organized Schools to teach the base of reading and writing to children, although evidence of systematic educational system for the masses has never been found.10 Vocational education took the form of apprenticeship, with the father passing on his skills to his sons. Tamil served as the medium of education for the masses. The Brahmins alone had Sanskrit education. Religious monasteries (matha or gatika), supported by the government, emerged as centre of learning.11
During the period several regional languages branched off from Sanskrit throughout the Peninsula. Marathi evolved from the local Prakrit, while Tamil, Telugu and Kannada stemmed up from the Dravidian concept. Saints also composed hymns in popular languages especially in Tamil and Sanskrit.
Tamil literature of this period shows great liveliness and vigour as in Kamban’s version of the Ramayana or the works of the Court poets Ottakuttar, Pugalenthi, Jayamkondar and Kallathanaar.
RELIGION
A number of popular religious movements flourished in the Tamil area. Some of them were continuing the teaching of the Alvars and Nayanmars. Others like the Lingayats in the 12th Century preached devotion to the theistic God and actively attacked religious hypocrisy. They questioned the Vedas and the theory of re-birth. Shiva was worshipped in the form of a lingam or phallic emblem. In 11th Century, Ramanuja disagreed with Shankara’s theory that knowledge was the primary means of salvation. He insisted on pure devotion, giving oneself up entirely to God. He also pleaded for the throwing open of temples to Sutras but without much success.
Temples were constructed by the Kings. But, the administrations of these temples were entrusted into the hands of the concerned local administration. The existence of decentralization was prevalent in the Imperial Cholas kingdom12. Because the provincial administration took up the responsibility of administrating these temples the Provincial Sabha was known as ‘field stations’13. The Provincial Sabha or field stations functioned as a connecting link between the functions Chola Kings and the people. In the temples functions were conducted by the provincial or Ur administration with the permission of the central administration. This did not mean that the central administration interfered in the powers of the Provincial Governors.
ART AND ARCHITECTURE
The Chola Kings devoted much of their attention towards the development of art and architecture. The Tanjavoor Temple built by Rajaraja I was the embodiment of architectural skill. The city, Gangaikonda Cholapuram stands as another monument for the erection of palatial buildings14. This proves that the Cholas were the best builders of the time. Kailasanather Temple built in Gangaikonda Cholapuram by Rajendra Chola is another example of the architectural skill of the Cholas.
Weaving developed and weavers were encouraged by the Chola monarchs through the formation of Guild Organizations15. In India, Guild Organizations began to develop only in the early part of the 9th Century. So even in the formation of Guild Organization the Cholas were the forefathers16.
CONCLUSION
The medieval Cholas under Rajaraja and his successors developed a highly organized administrative structure with central control and autonomous village assemblies. The system of government was a hereditary monarchy and the coronation of the King was an impressive ceremony. The royal household had numerous servants of varied descriptions. Land revenue was the public finance and great care was undertaken to recording land rights and revenue dues. Justice was administered by regularly constituted royal Courts in addition to village Courts. Crimes, such as treason, were dealt with by the king himself. The most striking feature of the Chola period was the unusual vigour and efficiency of the autonomous rural institutions. They developed international trade. They had harbours along the Eastern costal side and sail ships traversed through the Eastern countries and import and export flourished. When import was reduced, Kulothunga cancelled import taxes and encouraged trade. So he is known as “Sungam Thavirththa Cholan”. On the whole the Cholas did a lot for the uplift of the people of the Chola kingdom.
REFERENCES
1. T.V.Mahalingam, South Indian Polity, 1967, University of Madras, p.88
2. Ins 333 of 1927
3. T.V.Sadasiva Pandarathaar, History of Later Cholas, 1974, Puthukottai, p.173
4. South Indian Inscription, Vol.III, No.122, New Delhi, 1987.
5. K.K.Pillay, History of Tamilnadu, 1969, University of Madras, p.276
6. M.Subrahmaniam, Political and Cultural History of Cholas, 1979, New Delhi, pp.170-172
7. Vincent A. Smith, The Oxford History of India, 1958, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, p.226
8. M.Subrahmaniam, op.cit, p.172
9. Ibid, p.172
10. 17th Century Italian traveller Pietro Della Valle (1623) has given a vivid account of the village schools in South India. Those accounts reflect the system of primary education in existence until the modern times in Tamilnadu.
11. K.A.Nilakanta Sastri, The Cholas, 1955, University of Madras, p.292
12. Romila Thapor, A History of India, 1969, Penguin Publication, New Delhi, p.145
13. M.Subrahmaniam, op.cit, p.156
14. The New Sunday Express, 27thJuly 2014, p.14
15. B.K.Pandya, Temple Economy Under the Cholas(c.A.D.850-1070),1984, Bahari Publication, New Delhi, p.30
16. Kanakalatha Mukund, The Trading World of the Tamil Merchant; Evolution of Merchant Capitalism in the Coromandel, 1999, Penguins Books, India, pp.29-30