The antiquity and the original home of the Tamils is still a mystery. But it is proved by archaeological excavations as well as foreign evidences that long before the Christian era, South India witnessed a high culture and the land produced a highly developed literature. However during the later Sangam period, the society was unequal. The social stratification was vertically arranged based on their profession. In the early Tamil society, women were not treated as equals. Women faced cruelty in the form of widowhood, sati, illiteracy, economic dependency, bride price and so on.1 women showed great interest in fine arts and honoured by rulers. Madhavi was given the title talaikoil, recongnizing her talents in dance by the king. On the other hand, the common harlots were detested as they caused displeasure in families. These different dimensions of the harlots explain the difference in status even in a detested community. Erippaital or theeppaital (Jumping into the fire) was practiced by women for various reasons. While lamenting death of her husband, she narrates the pathetic condition of a widow in the early Tamil society and concluded preferring to be a sati by jumping into the fire.2
The Brahmins were placed at the highest helm of the hindu social order. They had enjoyed the exclusive privilege of education, whereas the non- Brahmins, prohibited from entering into the schools. Education was generally imparted in Sanskirt, throughout the historical period. Hence, the vast majority of the non-Brahmins did not have the accessibility to education. That being so, the status of women during the ancient period, was clear one of subordination to men. They were made to confine inside their houses. The women have to depend more and more on male in the society. The Vedic Sastras, which influenced the Tamil society, denied largely the right of education to women. However, in the subsequent centuries, there are some traces of efforts taken to educate the womenfolk as well.
Mutts, Pallis and the Viharas were the centres of learning in ancient Tamil Nadu.3 Apart from these institutions, consisting of men and women, it seems that there were also separate institutions specially meant for the promotion of women’s education. They are called in the records as pen pallis which simply meant schools for women students. One such institution flourished at Vilappakkam during the first half of the 10th century A.D.4 There are many evidences to show that women in the ancient Tamil Nadu had much higher status than what they came to be in later times.5 They enjoyed a respectable status in the society 6 and they were considered as the light of the house.7 In ancient Tamil literature, women were considered as an important agent for the substance of the family.8 The education multiplied the number of beneficiaries from generation to generation.9
They were educated enough to create and enjoy the fine arts.10 They were given good training in literature, music and drama.11 Both men and women functioned as temple musicians and were treated with great respect and honour12 and they were also amused themselves at home with teaching parrots, singing songs, rocking on swings and playing games of Tayam, Kalanju or pandi.13 From the available sources we get information that most of the women during the ancient period were experts in music, for instance when women sang the Palaippan, even the cruel hearts of the Maravars of the palai tract melted and the hunting weapons slipped from their hands.14 The women of the Sangam Age were educated through different aspects. The three principal arts of music, dance and drama were practiced intensively and extensively throughout the country. We get information from the epic silappadikaram which contains many references to the practice of this arts.15
At the same time, we do not hear of any seclusion of girls or purdah system. The free mixing of women and men is amply illustrated in friendship. For instance, Avvai had friendship with the chieftain Adigaman.16 During the ancient period, the women were excelled in all walks of life. We come across a number of women who wrote very fine poetry and composing literature. They were Avvaiyar, Adimandi, Vellividi, Okkurmasathiyar, Nachellaiyar, Nedumpalliyatti17 Anji Attai, Mekan Nakaiyar, Alluman Mullaiyar, Kakkaippatiniyar, Kavarpendu, Kuramakal, Ilaveyiniyar, Nakkannaiyar, Nettimaiyar, Netumpalliyattar, Parhakalir, Punkanuttiraiyar, Perunkoppendu, Peymakal, Illaveyinipottiyar, Pondaippasalaiyar, Marakkattu Nappasakaiyar, Vennikkuyattiyar and Venpatiya Kamakanniyar.18 Among them Avvaiyar and Nachchelliyar were quite famous. Perunkoppendu, wife of Bhuttappandyan wrote a poem on sati, which finds place in the Purananuru.19
During that period women were done different kinds of works. They were recruited as soldiers, ministers, ambassadors or other advisors of the King, for instance the Tamil poetess avvai was sent as an ambassador to Kanchi.20 In towns and cities, women of the poor classes were employed as hawkers, vendors, shopkeepers or servants in rich household. In the villages, they worked in the fields and gardens along with men and shared their hardship.21 Though women were given a secondary position in the society i.e., not equal to men in other activities, certain literature in the Tamil traditions shows the role played by women in the art of learning. A historical analysis of the specific contributions made by women should be taken note for the necessities of emancipating and empowering women at the present scenario. Any modern society will flourish only through the empowerment of women equal to men in all spheres of activities. There are many evidences to show that women in the ancient Tamil Nadu had much higher status than what they came to have in later times.
The ‘Illal’ or housewife of the Sangam Age enjoyed a respectable status in the society. She was considered as the luminary or fertility of the house.22 Modesty and hospitality were considered as fundamental assets of a well-bred housewife. Modesty did not mean inhibition or prudery. We find that women enjoyed freedom; they played games in the open places. They took part in pastimes and amusements, sported and bathed in ponds, went to temples to offer worship, attended royal assemblies, in short they enjoyed equal status with men.23 In Nattrinai, the author advises the parents not to restrain girls from playing with their mates in out-door games.24
The virtue of utter dedication of women to their husband’s and wanting to outlive them is portrayed in all classics. The example of how the Pandya Queen, Kopperundevi25 died as though in pursuit of her husband’s life is given in the epic silappadikaram. The practice of voluntary self-immolation by women, soon after the death of their husband is evident from the example of Perunkoppendu, the wife of Bootha Pandyan. There was no system of sati as such as requiring a woman to die on the funeral pyre of her husband as a duty. We do hear that women who survived with their husbands, lived on to look after the children, taking up spinning as their vocation and living a very regulated life observing ‘Thaimai Nonbu’ these women are referred to as ‘Paruthi Pendir’.
Education of Girls
Many Sangam poems are attributed to women scholars. We hear of as many as 37 female poets. From this, one can clearly understand that girls had the privilege of education equal to boys. Though, they were offered to study of all branches of Tamil, we find, training in Music or Isai Tamil was considered as an important asset to girls. We hear how girls with their melodious voice tame wild animals as well as birds. In Ahananooru, we hear of a girl from kurinji region singing a kurinji song and able to tame a wild elephant. in Purananuru, how a wife by her music made her husband forget his pain. We cannot deny the influence of some of the dharma sastras of the north gaining ground since the time Tholkappiam in Tamil Nadu.
Women could reach the status of Goddess by their sincere devotion and righteous action. The life Karaikkal Ammaiyar stands testimony to Managayarkkarasi, the daughter of Chola king and queen of Pandya Nedumaran, stood firm in reconverting her husband from jainsim to saivism with the help Sambandar and minister Kulachiraiyar. The dimension shown by Andal, the only women Alvar among the Twelve Alvars, reveals that a devotee could attain greater status through devotion. she composed Thiruppavai and Nacchiyar Thirumozhi which are very popular hymns of Lord Ranganatha. Very few women had risen to greater heights like kundavai the elder sister of rajaraja was known for her religious and philanthropic activities. She was given all respect, freedom and resource to execute her benevolent works for the welfare of the community. Though she was a widow, she was not confined to corner in the place. Instead, she come out to show her religious zeal and preserving the old records by constructing new temples and reconstructed old temples.26
In the medieval Tamil Country, women were subordinate to men as in the past. However, women in general, if not in practice, but in principle kept in high esteem and dignity.27 The well-to-do elite and women of royal household enjoyed sufficiently good status vis-a-vis men in the Pandyan society. The status of women was fairly high or in the upper strata in the Pallava society. Their right of property may be presumed. The common women were engaged in agricultural operations, weaving, spinning, selling flours and milk and engaged in domestic duties. The Pallava queens were very much interested in providing gifts and endowments to temple worship and erecting monuments for their favourite deities.28 During the Pallava-Pandya period, women who were dedicated to dancing were called Rishabhakaliyar, Devaradiyal and Talicheri Pendugal. There were seven divisions among the women dancers, namely dattai, vikritai, pritiyal, bakthai, hardai, alangari and rudrakanikani.29 the dancer who gives herself voluntarily to the temple was known as dattai. The one who sold herself to the temple was called vikritai. One who for the sake of her family benefit dedicated herself to the temple was termed pritiyal. The one who on account of extreme devotion joined the temple service was called bhakthai. One who was captured by some persons and handed over as gift to the temple service was called hardai. The one who was elected by the King or others as accomplished dancer was called alangari. The dancing girl who received salary from the temple was known as rudrakanikani.
Dancing girls were also employed as spies by the Secret Service Department.30 These ladies, on account of their proficiency in the art of dancing were held in great respect by the society.31 ‘‘Devadasi System’’ prevailed in the Pallava and during the first Pandyan Empire. During this period, Devadasis literally means ‘’Servants of Gods’’ were employed in temples to dance, sing and act before the Gods. But they degenerated into harlots from whom taxes were collected by the State in course of time.
No Right to Inherit
The Chola county, no women occupied the throne even in the absence of suitable heir to inherit the throne after the death of the ruler. Even the wife was young and educated while her husband died, she was not considered suitable to inherit the throne. For instance we could take the case of Chempiyan Mahadevi, the queen of Kandaratiya who was widowed at a very young age. She lived with her husband for about 15 years and in 958 A.D. when Kandaratitya died, though she was young, educated and energetic, she was not considered suitable even in the absence of a male heir to inherit the throne.
Political Marriages
Normally, Indian kings were fond of marrying many women. We hear of numerous wives in the case of most of the Tamil rulers. The Venitian Traveller Marco polo32 says that the Pandyan king Kulasekara Pandyan had 300 wives. The king generally married within his family and chose a bride of his caste and status. We have also instances of marrying in different families for political reasons. For instance, the Chola king Parantaka married a Rastrakuta princess purely for maintaining cordial relationship with that power and to check the popularity of his enemies. Similarly, Rajaraja’s matrimonial relationship with Western Chalukyas was no doubt a master stroke of diplomacy. Rajaraja I gave his daughter Kundavai to Vimaladitya, the Eastern Chalukya Prince to maintain their relations and to curtail the influence of the Western Chalukyas.33 Nevertheless in due course it became the noble lineage and it captured the Chola throne when Kulotunga I became the chola emperor. Uttama chola had atleast five wives, Rajaraja I and Rajendra I had hundreds of wives. They maintained separate harem, which was a vast establishment which included princess captured in war. They were provided separate apartment and had their separate routine which looked after their comforts.34 Men married women and employed them as animals without individual rights and duties during the Chola period.
Women Captives in War
During the Chola period, women were treated as a valuable object and a precious metal. In times of war instead of giving them safe and security, they were annexed as war booty along with other spoils of war and transported them to their home by the victorious party and then used for their filthy purposes. This practice was prevalent in the Tamil country even from the Sangam Age. Pattinappalai35 refers to the women captives as kontimakalir and elaborates that they were ill-treated by using them to light lamps in the temple at kaveripoompattinam. Padittupattu36 further states that the women captives were tonsured by cutting their hair and ill-treated badly. During the Chola period, the women captives were not only ill-treated and tonsured, but also killed them without showing any mercy. For instance, the Hottur inscription37 of Satyasraya states that the Chola army after ravaging the Chalukya country murdered many women and children. The Chola kings did not leave even the royal queen and the princess from the defeated country, they were brought to home and used them to satisfy their base pleasures, for instance, virarajendra, the Chola king after defeating the Chalukyan army captured the only daughter of the Chalukyan King named Naglai and after raping her he cut off her nose.38
The Chola society witnessed the prevalence of a well established institution called Thalippendir39 temple women. In this dimension, the Chola women proved to be well-dedicated service women of the temple with artistic talents.40 They were patronised by the royal household. Music, dance and musical instruments were well developed by the temple women. Society treated them with dignity, though some scholars subscribe that the thalaipendir contributed to the growth of the institution of prostitution. It can also be stated that the thalaippendir came to be known as Devadasis at a later date with a different connotation.41 After the Cholas, the Pandyas, vijiayanagar rulers, Marathas, and the Nayaks ruled the Tamil country in succession. But women had not played much dominant role during these periods. The Muslim rule had made them powerless too. They were relegated to the background. They were deprived of their basic rights.
In course of time, the social evils affecting women grew more in number. They are polygamy, polyandry, child marriage, widowhood, rape, harassment, illiteracy, unemployment, under employment, slavery, exploitation, child labour, subordination at a home and outside, dependency, dowry, sati, prostitution, devadasi system, female infanticide, divorce, etc., are some of the social evils which affecting women of Tamil Nadu. They had no property rights too. Many historians have written works on these social evils, highlighting the sufferings of Indian Women.42 Regarding the position of the rural women they assisted the men folk in their cultivation and took care of the children and household work. In fact, they enjoyed more freedom than their urban counterparts. They were with their men folk in the agricultural fields, whereas the urban women were confined to their homes. Marriage and divorce were made simpler in the downtrodden society, compared to the upper class people, but, when the caste system became very rigid, the down trodden women faced all humiliations from the so called upper class and they were ever denied to wear the upper garment which later resulted in a movement in the former Travancore State (Kanyakumari District). Most of the rural women and masonry women in urban areas remain illiterate and they have no economic freedom inspite of their earning capacities.
The Muslim rule in India tightened the freedom of Indian women purdha system was practiced. Women were denied education and employment. Though the divorce law was very simple, it favoured men very much in practice. Prevalence of polygamy in Muslim society inconvenienced the women. The advent of the Europeans changed the situation to a greater extent. The missionaries, though selfish in their attitude towards conversion, had definitely contributed to women’s education in Tamil Nadu also. Many girls’ schools were started and slowly they were given higher and professional education.
Kannadasan
References
- Radha Kumud Mookerji, Women of India, New Delhi, 2000, p.p. 1-2.
- A.S Altekar, Position of Women in Hindu Civilization, New Delhi, 1974, p.p. 410-412.
- K.A. Nilakanda Sastri, The Colas, Madras, 1984, p. 628.
- G.S. Gurumurthy, Education in South India, Madras, 1978, p.101.
- J.K. Pillai and Rajeswari, Readings in Women’s Education, Kodaikanal, 1988, p. 38.
- Ibid., p.1.
- J.K. Pillai and Rajeswari, op.cit., p. 45.
- Yamuna Raja Rao and Yashoda Bhat, the Image of Women in Indian Literature, New Delhi, 1993, p. 123.
- Nawal Kishore Ambasht, A Critical Study of Tribal Education, New Delhi, 1970, p. 93.
- N. Subramanian, History of Tamil Nadu up to 1336, Madurai, 1972, p. 342.
- Ibid., p. 73.
- G.S. Gurumurthy, op.cit., p. 129.
- S.A.Q. Husaini, History of Pandya Country, Karaikudi, 1962, p. 34.
- J.K. Pillai, educational System of the Ancient Tamils, Madras, 1972, p. 48.
- G.S. Gurnmurthy, op.cit., p. 125.
- J.K. Pillai, op.cit, p. 45.
- S. Sundarajan, Ancient Tamil Country: Its Social and Economic Structure, New Delhi, 1991, p. 154.
- C.Balasubramanian, The Status of Women in Tamilnadu During the Sangam Age, Madras, 1966, p.p. 7-8.
- N. Subramanian, Sangam Polity, Madras, 1986, p. 289.
- N.Subramanian, op.cit., p. 289.
- S.A.Q. Husaini, op.cit., p. 33.
- Thirukkural, No. 55.
- Puram, line 314
- Perumbanattuppadi, lines 387-8311-2
- Nattrinai, line. 320.
- SII.III, No. 205
- Sir Herbert Risely, The People of India, Delhi, 1915, p.p. 67-68.
- Epigraphica Indica, Vol. III, p. 46.
- Edgar Thurston, Castes and Tribes of Southern India, Vol. II, Delhi, 1975, p. 125.
- A.S. Alekar, op.cit., p. 84.
- U.P. Krishnamacharya, The Place of Devadasi in Society, Madras, 1974, p. 84.
- Travel Accounts of Marco Polo, p. 293.
- Indian Antiquary, Vol. XIV, p. 52.
- K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, op.cit., p. 182. Pattinappalai, lines 11: 246-249. Padittupattu, lines 50:15-19.
- E.I., Vol. XVI, SII, p. 75.
- SII. Vol. III, No. 20.
- Ibid., Vol. III, No. 28.
- Ibid., Vol. III, No. 29.
- Ibid., Vol. XIV, No. 442.
- ARE, 260 of 1915.
- SII, 11.66.
- Sushila Nayar, and Kamala Mankekar (ed.), Women Pioneers in India, Renaissance, New Delhi, 2002, p.p. 21-31.