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CONTRIBUTION OF IMPERIAL CHOLAS TO TEMPLES – A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

Dr. D. Karthikeyan
Special Officer, Annamalai University Study Centre,  Paramakudi.

ABSTRACT
The Chola kingdom was one of the important powers of South India which survived for more than four hundred years. The Cholas were great temple and monument builders. The temples of big size came into existence and there was a need for more funds. Besides, temple was an epi-centre of society and performed all the societal activities except politics. Nonetheless, the people at the helm of temple affairs wielded significant influence in the royal polity. So it required huge resources which were provided by grants made by generation of kings, royal family members, feudal chieftains, officials, merchants and various communities and individuals. The temple of medieval times had a unique role as a landholder, consumer of goods and services, as an employer, as the focus of social life and development. The art and architecture, sculptures, iconography and painting attained progress in and through the temple. The temple acted as an educational centre of Vedic learning and provided ample employment opportunities to a large section of people. In this paper an attempt has been made to bring out the land grants and other donations given by the cholas to temples during the medieval period.

Introduction
Temple is a vehicle of religion built for the fulfillment of the spiritual desires of the people. It was a powerful social and economic entity and a source of religious inspiration for the people. In the early period the temple was a simple institution. It was not a wealthy and complex institution but from about the early eighth century A.D., building of temples to lord Siva and Vishnu and making gifts to them became universal.13 The Hindus give more importance to danam., i.e., gifts. It is ordained in the dharmasastras of the Hindus that a portion of earnings of every man should be set apart and devoted to charity.14 In the medieval society, monarchy, religion and temples were considered as inseparable part of society. Monarch was considered either the representative of god or next to god. Before the emergence of god as an entity, the monarchs considered themselves to be living gods on earth. It was their duty to protect the interest of the people. In course of time the monarch wanted to perpetuate this by justifying the ways of god to men through the institution of religion by constructing temples and maintaining them by grants.

Occasions of Grants and Gifts
The numerous inscriptions of the period under study speak about the various occasions of making gifts. Gifts made on the ayana16 day, on sankrantis,17 on the eclipses of the sun and moon18 on new moon and full moon days19 and on several tithis were considered meritorious. Grants and gifts were made by every class of people in the society. The Pallavas, the Pandyas and the Chola kings were great patrons of temples.20 The king used to make grants on the day of his birth day, coronation,21 at the time of leading expeditions, on the occasion of victory in a battle,22 on the birth of a son, for the prosperity of his son,23 at the time of renovating,24 or setting up of divinities, at the time of visiting the temple,25 while he was camping,26 for long life, health and victory,27 while and at the request of others.29 performing hemagarbha and tulabhara28

The occasions for making grants by the royal women, chiefs, officials and other rich and poor individuals are also found in the inscriptional records. There are numerous references to grants made for the merit of the husband, 30 mother, 31 father, 32 daughter 33 and other relatives, for the merit and commemoration of the servants (warriors) who lost their life in the battle field,34 during the eclipse days,35 for the welfare and prosperity36 of the family37 and king,38 village and country.39 The other occasions for making grants to temples by individuals was to expiate the sins committed by them,40 success in combat for oneself, recovery from illness and others were also among the motives that induced the people to start works of charity.

Purpose of Endowments
There was an immense variety in the purpose for which the grants and gifts were made to the temples with the conditions to maintain the specified services in the temple from the interest or income of the donated item. Generally, the donors aspired for merit for themselves or their dead ancestors or for their masters and overlords in making these gifts. A record dated in 1032 A.D. mentions the land grant made by Manalur Kilavan for the prosperity of the king Rajendra Chola I.41 Nadan Tulaiyadaselvan (alias) Rajarajappallavarayan, the headman of Velur in Kilvelur in Alanadu in Geyamanikka Valanadu made a grant of land in 1114. A.D, to the god at Tiruvakkarai for the merit of his father Peruntirukkoyil Nadanar.42 In the ninth year of Kulothunga III (1185 A.D) the gift of land made tax free as devadana to god Tiruvagathisuram Udaiyar at Ulundai by Alvar alias Seyyanambirattiyar for burning four sandhi lamps for her own merit43

Food Offerings
A large majority of the gifts were made for making food offerings of various kinds to the deities daily. The assembly of Salaigramam in Mahimakara Valanadu alias Tuvurkurram endowed land for offerings to be made to the Lord at Sri Varaguna Isvaram at Salaigramam44 during the reign of Virapandya in 957 A.D. The residents of Oymanadu made a gift of land free of taxes for daily offerings in the temple of Tiruvagathisuram Udaiya Mahadeva at Anandamangalam in the fifth year of Vikramacholadeva.45 Provision was also made for various offerings to be made on special occasions like festivals. Rajendrachola I granted 10 sey of cultivable land for celebrating the seven days annual festival during the month of chittirai (April) in the temple of Kailasamudaliyar at Cholamadevi chaturvedimangalam in 1015 A.D.46

Perpetual Lamps
Lighting of lamps in temples is an important practice among the Hindus. Most of the inscriptions speak about the donations made to the temples for the maintenance of perpetual lamps (nandavilakku). The lamps were lit not only during day and night but also for special services and festival occasions.  Mahadevadigal, the daughter of Vanakovaraiyar made a gift of village for offerings and lamp to Agasteysvara temple.47 Tippanju-Alagiyan Maravan in conjunction with Paluvettaraiyar Kumaran Maravan endowed six ma of land for a perpetual lamp in the temple of Mahadeva at Tiruppalanam during the reign of Uttamachola in 976 A.D.48

Supply of Article of Worship
Besides food offerings and lamps, various other commodities were required for day to day conduct as well as special festival occasions. Most of the gifts were intended for providing articles of worship like garlands, requirements of the tirumanjanam, decoration of the deity.49 The flower gardens were donated for regular supply of flowers and garlands to the temple as tirumalaipuram. Nangali Akkan residing at Alancheri in Alinadu endowed land for garden for a festival on the day of Tiruvadirai in Chittirai. (April)50

The sacred bath of the deity was usually performed daily. Aditan Kodaippirattiyar the queen of Arinjigaipenmar endowed a plot of land for the sacred bath of the god with 108 pots of water on the day of Vishu in chittirai (April).51 Atkondan Arikularaja Marayan of the Virasola Anukkar granted 175 kuli of land to meet the expenses of worship of god Manikkakuttar on all days of amavasya in the year during the reign of Vikrama Chola in 1121 A.D.52 A servant and tenant of Kadavarayan namely Toranavallavapperayan made a gift of land for oblations to the temple of Sirutirukkoyil Bhatara.53

The assembly of Srivikramabharana – chaturvedimangalam assigned land for oblations, for festivals, expiations and bathing of the idol at the request of Chakrapani Nambi in 866 A.D. during the reign of Vijayalaya.54 The procession of the deity was also one of the important rituals referred to. The deity was taken into procession daily within the prakara of the temple and it was called as tiruchennnadai.55 Sribali also was a ceremony of carrying of the image around the temple.56 The land grants were made for that purpose also.

Celebration of Festivals
One of the important activities in the temple was celebration of a number of festivals either by the temple or at the instance of the king or devotees. Festivals are occasions which give full expression to the social and religious instincts of the people. The land granted for this purpose was known as tiruvilappuram.57 A merchant namely Pratigandan Darachcholan granted quarter sey of land as salaippuram for the celebration of the annual karthigai (November) festival in the temple of Tiruvarappallialvar in Valappurnadu in Salem District in 980 A.D.58  Special offerings were made in the temple on sacred days like aippasi (Octobter), visu,59 tiruvadirai day,60 full moon day,61 new moon day,62 sankranti63 day, occasions of solar eclipse.64

Recitation of Holy Texts
Arrangements were made for the recitation of holy texts and endowments were made for this purpose also. The temple musicians were to sing hymns on ordinary and festival days. The singing of tiruvaymoli and tiruppadigam were practised in temples. The village assembly of Tenneri in Jeyangondasola mandalam made a gift of certain lands in Velimanallur for the singing of the tiruppadigam hymns at the morning service of the god  Tiruvanantisvaram   Udaiyar.65 Viranarayanan   Sembiyan   Vedivelar   of Sirudavur in Kiliyurnadu the chief under Rajaraja I endowed land to the temple for the maintenance of four persons singing the tiruppadigam before the god in 988 A.D.66

Feeding of Brahmins and Ascetics
Feeding of Brahmins was considered as a sacred duty.   They were highly respected. It was done by utilising the donation made for that purpose.   Besides daily feeding, on certain occasions and festivals such as full moon day, tiruvadirai day the Brahmins were fed. The tinaikkalattar of Nalkur in Venbunadu made a gift of land in Kilur Kundukalam for the expenses of feeding Brahmins who chanted some portions of the vedas in the presence of god.67 Queen Tribhuvana Madeviyar granted land for feeding one hundred Brahmins on the days of uttarayana sankranti in the temple of Kailasamudaiya Mahadeva at Sembiyanmadevi in Tanjavur District.68

Repair and Renovation
Devotees also made gifts for the renovation and repair of the temples. The Perunguri sabha of the Rajasraya chaturvedimangalam made a gift of land for repairs to the temple of Tiruvarangadeva.69 Kulothungasola Vanakovaraiyan made a gift of land to the temple of Tiruvegambam  Udaiya Nayanar at Tadavur in Salem District for repairs.70

Flower Garden
Several kinds of garden were maintained by the temple by receiving gifts from devotees. The nagarathar of Ilachchikkudi made a grant of land free of taxes for forming a flower garden for the temple.71 The daughter and granddaughter of Kunrangilan a resident of Anangur in Rajaraja Valanadu donated land for a flower garden to the temple of Tiruttonipuramudaiya Nayanar at Tirukkalumalam.72 Apart from the above purposes, grants were made for various other purposes like maintaining musicians,73 maintenance of servants,74 uvachars,75 and dancers.76

The Product or item of Grant
The grants generally mean the contribution made for a particular activity.  Hinduism is very ritualistic.  By performing various religious rites to the temples, the Hindus believed that they would go nearer to god and gain materially and spiritually which in turn depended on various types of actions made for specific purposes.77 The number and size of the temples in the pre-Pallava period were few and small respectively and the cost maintenance was also easy78 but when the temples of big size came into existence there was a need for more funds. Temple need for more and it had become a city of miniature in the medieval period.79 The items of grants include village grants, land grants, money grants, grant of animals (cow, sheep) utensils, ornaments, articles necessary for worship and grants of various dues and taxes.

Village Grant
Village grant was usually made by the kings only. Sometime the princes or Yuvaraja were empowered to make village grants.80 The royal ladies81 and chieftains82 made grants of either village or its revenue after getting the approval from the reigning king.   The devadana villages were suffixed by the term nallur.83 There are only few instances of village grants in the Pallava and Pandya period. During the   Chola period the village donation to the temple was higher.84 Of one thousand three hundred villages listed in Chola mandalam fifty were devadana villages.85

Land Grant
Land donation was called as greatest of donations by the commentators of dharmasastra.  Likewise in the Pallava charters, lands were mentioned as the best dana greater than any other dana.86 Both small and large plots of land were donated to the temples.  The land donation was directly made to the temple87 and there are instances of accepting donations “on behalf of temple by the village assemblies,88 temple employees,89 and priests90  etc., The  boundary of the  land to  be  donated  was  clearly demarcated and demarcating stones were laid on the four corners of the land.

The term used for denoting land donations have generally suffix ‘puram’ like Kidaippuram91 Tiruvilappuram,92 Pudukkuppuram,93 Unnaligaippuram,94 Valippattuppuram,95 Tiruchchenadaippuram96 Tirunandavanappuram97 Ambalappuram,98 Tiruvilakkuneyppuram.99  The land donated for the worship of the deity was known as archanabhogam.100

Besides donating ordinary lands the garden land101 and house sites were also donated to the temple and also lands were donated for the remuneration of the gardeners who maintained them.102 The land endowments enriched the temple on the one hand and widened the sphere of its activities on the other.103

Gift of Gold and other Jewels
The devotion of the people are found expression in the gift to the deities of rich ornaments and various articles necessary for daily worship. In the thirteenth year of Nandivarman, the daughter-in-law of Ayyakki Pangala- adigal, a chief of Pangalanadu made a gift of five kalanjus of gold to  Muktisvara temple at Kaveripakkam.104 A record of Maranjadaiyan refers  to a gift of 537 kalanjus of gold to the god, out of which four gold pattams  and a gold flower were made for decorating the Tirumalai Perumanadigal.105  The Chola inscriptions also give a rich account of gold ornaments and  precious jewels offered to deities. The South Indian Inscriptions narrate in detail the various types of gold ornaments and precious jewels donated to the various deities. Most of the ornaments were donated by kings and members of the royal family. The gift of a silver plate and a pot and also a chauri with gold handle was presented by Sembiyanmadevi to Tirunaraiyur temple.106 Donation of ornaments were made not only to decorate the icons but also to enrich the temple treasury.107

Gift of Money
Several gifts of money were made by all ranks of society to temples  for  lamps,108  land  purchase,109   supply  of articles  necessary  for  daily worship110 and for feeding learned Brahmins.111 Money gifts were popular from about 1000 A.D.112 Taxes on lands and villages collected in cash were also made over by the king and by the assemblies to the temples.113

Gift of Utensils
A variety of utensils used for various purposes like for performing pujas, to cook and offer food to god and for making offerings were presented to temples by several people. A record of Rajaraja I records a gift of two silver vessels in which offerings were to be made to god Tiruvaraneri-Alvar by Udaiya Pirattiyar Sembiyan Mahadeviyar for the merit of Uttama choladeva.114 Kundavai, the elder sister of Rajaraja I donated silver vessels not only to the Siva temple but also to Vishnu temple and a Jain alaya.115  Vessels of gold and silver were offered to gods and goddess.

Gift of Animals
Gift of animals like cows, buffaloes, bulls, sheep for maintaining lamps in the temples and for the preparation of offerings witnessed during the chola period largely. A record of Maranjadaiyan registers a gift of cows made by Sattanammai for burning a lamp in the temple of Brahmapurittevar at Tirunelveli.116 Sandaiyan, a Cavalier of Mahimalaiya Irukkuvelir made a gift of 31 cows for the supply of milk for the early morning, bath of the deity, milk and ghee for offerings in the temple of Tirunilakkunrathu Paramesvara.117

Gift of Food Grains
The temples received offerings of different kinds of foodstuffs and grains. Food offerings were made in great quantities on festival days and it was called sribali.118 At times food grains were supplied directly to meet the immediate needs of the temple. A record of Nandippottaraiyar registers a gift of 100 kalam of paddy by Alsiriyan for maintaining a sacred lamp in the temple of Sirunangai Isvaragaram at Tirukkodika.119

Gift of Slaves
The existence of slavery during the Pallava and Pandya periods is attested in the Bhakti literature of the nayanmars and alwars by the terms adiyar, adigal and adimai which denote slaves, but their association with temple is not proved by concrete evidences. It was during the period of the Imperial Cholas, the inscriptional proof is available for the existence of the slaves. They were purchased by temple directly120 or were purchased by somebody and donated to temple.121 The slaves were of both sexes and they were classified into non-voluntary, voluntary. These slaves were made over to the temple by an order of the king, by purchase from several parties and by gifts from private individuals.122

Conclusion
Thus the temples had received enormous wealth from all sections of society. Kings, royal family members, chiefs, merchants and land owners view with one another in donating rich things to their favourite places of worship and this gave the temple a sound and independent financial footing resulted in multifarious activities of the temple.

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