ABSTRACT
The Indian farmers have been using old and inefficient methods and techniques of production .Since they are tradition bound and also poor they have not adopted the modern methods which are so widely adopted in the countries of the west and in Japan. To revitalize fertility and to utilize follow lands the use of manures of all kinds is both farm yard manure and chemical fertilizers is extremely inadequate. The importance of good quality seeds to increase agricultural productivity needs no emphasis. However, as compared to imports food grains in the year 1960-61 with 1985-86 imports of food grain is declined but imports of Fertilizers increased. In this way Indian agriculture has not achieved self-sufficiency. There is shift from imports of food grain to imports of fertilizers. However, the growth achieved during this period is not even in all gears. More over growth rate in production of food grain varies from State to State and it is also differ from crop to crop. The farmers thus assert the logic for a change where he is shown a better cropping pattern. The real difficulty in adopting a better cropping pattern is that the farmer may not have the requisite capital to invest now possesses the know-how that may be necessary for changing the crops. It is therefore the government may come forward to his help.
Land System Under British
The British rule can be divided into two epochs first the rule of the East Indian Company ranging from 1757 to 1858 and second the rule of the British government in India from 1858 to 1947. During this period, England was passing through the period of changes in the techniques of production which revolutionized manufacturing. The Indian textile handicrafts were the first to be hit. The decline of this industry started a chain of reaction leading to the speedy decline of other handicrafts. But they did not care to provide an alternative source of employment.1
The real problem of Indian agriculture is that there are many people depend on agriculture. Those who followed traditional handicrafts had to give them up and adopt agriculture. 2 This trend of the growing proportion of the working force on agriculture is described as progressive “ruralization” or “re industrialization” of India. Thus it is responsible for progressive subdivision and fragmentation of holdings. It led to an increase in land rents charged from tenants which result in increase of landless labourers.3
A new land system during 1793 -1850 in India was created Zamindars with temporary settlement. According to the ryotwari settlement, each peasant holding plot was recognized as the landlord and made direct responsible to the State for the annual payment of land revenue . In the above two settlements the land rents fixed were excessive and both the system were true instruments in the destruction of the organic village community based on custom and tradition. Through the introduction of Zamindari system the British were able to create a class of people whose interests were directly tied to British rule in India. But the system helped to create a class of absentee land-lords4.
Land holding
The two categories in the rural areas are small farmers and the landless farmers. Recent researches have proved that productivity on small farms is as high as that on large farms. The Planning Commission therefore Stated, “There are no technological barriers to a small holding achieving high productivity per unit of land. Some of the highest yields are in the world of rice in Japan and cotton in Egypt”.5 The destruction of the Indian handicraft increased unemployment in the rural areas. So the labour thrown out of employment in traditional industries could only burden subsistence agriculture.
Farm Size
The average holding in India is very low less than 2 hectares or 5 acres. Not only agricultural holdings are small, but they are fragmented too. In certain parts of the country plots of land have become so small, that it is impossible to move even an ordinary plough. Since the average agricultural holdings are too small no scientific cultivation with its proved implements and seed6. It is possible small sized holdings lead to great waste of time for labour and cattle power, difficulty in proper utilization of irrigation facilities, quarrels and consequent irrigation among farmers, wastage of crops in the absence of fencing7.
Pattern of Land Tenure
Under the system of the Zamindari, as well as the land feudalism, the cultivator was not the owner. He has to pay high rents for the land he cultivates and he has no security. Under these difficult conditions, it is impossible to expect the tiller to increase agricultural productivity.
Poor Techniques of Technology
The Indian farmers have been using old and inefficient methods and techniques of production .Since they are tradition bound and also poor they have not adopted the modern methods which are so widely adopted in the countries of the west and in Japan. To revitalize fertility and to utilize follow lands the use of manures of all kinds is both farm yard manure and chemical fertilizers is extremely inadequate. The importance of good quality seeds to increase agricultural productivity needs no emphasis.
Inadequate Irrigation Facilities
One of the basic causes for the weakness of Indian agriculture has been that most of the farmers throughout the country had to depend upon rainfall and very few artificial irrigation. Irrigation facilities are being increasingly made available double cropping, better rotation of crops, fighting plant diseases, and pests are being looked into. This shows that there is great scope for artificial irrigation in the country.8
Cropping Pattern Before Independence
Cropping pattern meant the proportion of area under different crops at a point of use. A change in cropping pattern implies a change in the proportion of area under different crops. India is one of the largest agricultural countries of the world. Almost all types of food grains are cultivated. Indian Five Year Plan since 1951 had set forth a land reform. The land reform programmes were built around scope of land reform measures abolition of intermediary, limitation of size of holding and settlement and regulation of results of these programmes were laid down. The plan recognized the pattern of land occupancy and a fundamental issue of national development. In fact it was these reforms aiming at agricultural development from an alien government wedded to the policy of commercialization of agriculture.9
Land Reform After Independence
At the time of Independence, India inherited a semi feudal agrarian structure with one rous tenure arrangements over substantial areas. The ownership and control of land was highly concentrated in a relatively land-lords and intermediaries. At the same time, working cultivators after paying high rent had no surplus to invest in farm improvement. They had neither resource for knowledge for increasing agricultural production.10 The main elements of the land reforms measurers carried out during first decades of planning (1951-1961) period were, (i) to abolish intermediaries such as Zamindar and Jagirdars between the government and the tillers so as to ensure security of tenure and eventually to make them the owners of land (ii) To impose ceilings on the ownership of land holdings and distribute the surplus land among the landless labourers.11 The adoption of new technology, mainly the cultivation of High Yielding Variety (HYV) seeds requires intensive use of fertilizers and pesticides under adequate and often assured water supply.12 The high rates of interest changed by the money lend class made to impossible for the peasants to reply these debts. Gradually, lands passed on to the money lending class. Thus the new land relations which embodied the creation of a class of land-owners and a class of cultivators.
Government Action and Crop Pattern
Government can influence crop pattern through legislative and administrative measurers. Steps may be taken by the government to ease or subsidies the supplies of the farms inputs and knowledge. The provision of irrigation facility or supply of seeds, fertilizers may be related to the adoption of a given crop pattern by the farmers. Food Crop Acts, Land Use Acts, Intensive Scheme for Paddy, for cotton for oilseeds, all these bring overall effect on the entire crop pattern. If more of irrigation, institutional credit fertilizers, pesticides are made available it would be possible for them to change the crop structure and so earn larger return from their land.
Modernization of Agriculture and Green Revolution
The introduction of new agricultural strategy was in the name of the green revolution to solve India’s food problem. The tremendous growth of population from 350 to 550 million in two decades, increase the demand for food grains and agricultural raw materials due to economical growth. 13
Green Revolution
Another way to increase agricultural production is to productivity of land. In India 1966-67 a new technique of production was introduced. It is known as green revolution. An important component of this revolution is high yielding varieties of seed production of agriculture is determined by labour, capital and technology. The adoption of technology is decided by farmer’s capacity and willingness to take risk.
Cropping Pattern of Kanyakumari District
Two thirds of Tamilnadu population lives in rural areas where agriculture is the primary occupation of the rural masses of the State.14 Generally village papers reveal a wide disparity among the various districts. Among the various districts, Kanyakumari is at the bottom of the rank accounting for 1.65 Lakhs hectare in utilization.15 The society and the economy of the district are similar to those of Kerala, of which, it was a part till 1956. Though it is a small district it has a varied geography. The district is very rich from the point of agriculture including horticulture.16 In an economy dominated by subsistence cultivation, production of food grains is the important economic activity. Among the different food grains such as rice, cholam, cambu and ragi. Rice occupied the highest rank in the Tamil culinary hierarchy where in rice is considered an auspicious items.17 Because of the high status occupied by rice in the dietary hierarchy, people were motivated to cultivated in land with good soil and land where irrigation was available.18
In a subsistence economy cultivation of one’s food grain requirements in one’s own field is greatly valued. Land where paddy could be cultivated was more evaluator than other lands. Because of this, the demand for paddy fields was greater than the demand for other land. This made paddy fields a valuable possession. The organization of work connected with its production and necessary for its cultivation took place devalued. Because of the low evaluation of work connected with paddy cultivation, the higher categories of farmers tried to avoid actual work in paddy fields and got it done through labourers.19
Factors Influencing Cropping Pattern
The district is warm and sunny. At the same time it gets good rainfall spread almost throughout the year. The average annual rainfall in the district is 1470 mm20. Red soil is spread over almost the entire upland region, lying between the two Ghats and alluvial soil is found mainly in the coastal areas. Forests occupy more than 30 percent of the geographical area. Thus the district is very rich form the point of agriculture including horticulture.21
Apart from rain and soil the availability of irrigation is an important factor which influences the cropping pattern. Tanks and canals are the major sources of irrigation of Kanyakumari District. The gross cropped area of this district is nearly 33 percent of net sown area excluding the forest is irrigated. Double cropping is the rule in the irrigated low-lands. Almost the whole of the irrigated area in both seasons is under rice cultivation. The uplands areas which cannot be irrigated by canals or tanks can be used for growing drier crops like tapioca, condiments and spices. Both paddy and tapioca comes under competition in the low-lands including horticulture crops. The district has extensive mango, banana, cashew, coconut and rubber orchards and plantations.
Because of the closeness of holdings most of the activities of one owner affect several other neighboring land-holders. Further, because of the small size of the plots such adverse effects cannot be overlooked. A chain effect sets in which can be stopped only after the extension meet a natural boundary like a road, residential hamlets or grazing grounds.22 Most of the area has now been converted into rubber or coconut plantations. Rubber is hardly tall quick growing tree reaching 18 to 30 meters in height and producing a conical canopy three to five meters above the ground.23
Extent of Conversion
Naturally rubber trees extend their shadow over a wide area and many tapioca fields are affected. A number of them have already converted their fields to rubber.24
In the Kalkulam Taluk, one immediately notices the miserable condition of paddy cultivation in that area. Large number of yields is now affected. In some of the process of conversion is nearing completion and in other it has just started. Apart from coconut in some areas rubber is also being planted in the fields previously cultivated with paddy. Even the most fertile areas irrigated by Valliarruu River are not outside this process of change. In the Vilavancode Taluk which is adjacent to Kerala, the changes are equally prominent. However, in the Thovalai Taluk on the east, the changes are limited to the uplands and in the Agastheeswaram Taluk the change is not significant25.
Above all few persons made the change willingly; the rest had just to follow for they had no other alternative impact of the conversion. There are many adverse effects particularly on the poorer section of the peasantry. Along with the conversion of paddy fields to perennial tree crops the tenancy system which was in existence in some areas came to an end. Those who have sufficient bank balance or other sources of income can manage over, but not the subsistence farmers. So, many of them have been forced to sell their land and try some other avenue of livelihood. Thus small and middle farmers have been totally wrecked. The northern villagers near the hills, where tapioca occupied a substantial proportion of cultivable land and food crops are thus badly affected, As a consequence concentration of ownership has considerable increased. Plots sold by the poorer sections who cannot afford to undertake perennial cultivation are often bought by richer ones having land holdings in the same years. It is fact that the neighborhood effect is visible over almost all parts of the country.
IMPACT
Some improvement in the productivity of land will be definitely taking place because of the adoption of the new techniques of production.26The aggregative physical parameters of agriculture show remarkable achievement. Between 1950 and 1996-97 agricultural production increased from 49 to 176 tones food grains from 52 to 161 and non food grains from 45 to 201. Per hectare yield all crops increased from 74 to 149. Between 1950-51 and 1994-95 gross cropped area increased from 132 million hectares to 188 million hectares. Gross irrigated area went up from 23 million hectares to 71 million hectares. Between 1950-1951 and 1996-97 distribution of improved seeds increased to 20 quintals fertilizers use increased from only 69 thousands tones to 14 million tones with per hectare fertilizer to 77 kg. Pesticides use increased from 2-4 thousand tones to 56 thousand tones consumption of electricity in agriculture went up from 15200 million K.W.H in 1981-82 to 85736 millions K.W.H in 1995-1996. Institutional Credit (Co – Operative Societies, Commercial Banks and Regional Rural Banks) was 28653 crores in 1996-97 compared to 16186 in 1989-90.27
Conclusion
However as compared to imports food grains in the year 1960-61 with 1985-86 imports of food grain is declined but imports of fertilizers increased. In this way Indian agriculture has not achieved self-sufficiency. There is shift from imports of food grain to imports of fertilizers. However, the growth achieved during this period is not even in all gears. Moreover growth rate in production of food grain varies from State to State and it is also differ from crop to crop.28 The farmers thus assert the logic for a change where he is shown a better cropping pattern. The real difficulty in adopting a better cropping pattern is that the farmer may not have the requisite capital to invest now are possess the know-how that may be necessary for changing the crops. It is therefore the government may come forward to his help.
– Y. Mallika
Ph. D. Scholar, Department of History, Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Tirunelveli
REFERENCES
1. Dutt and Sundaram, Indian Economy ,11th Edition, Delhi,1975, p.14
2. Ibid, p. 316.
3. Ibid, p.15.
4. Ibid, op.cit, p.15
5. Ruddar Datt and K.P.M. Sundaram, p. 242.
6. Ibid, p.550.
7. Ibid, p.317.
8. Dutt and Sundaram,Op. cit. p. 317
9. Dutt and Sundaram, Op. cit. p. 322.
10. Umakapila, Indian Economy Since Independence 15th Edition, Delhi, 20O3-2004. p.203.
11. C.H.H.Rao, Indian Economy Since Independence 15th Edition p.203.
12. Ibid, p.209.
13. Dutt and Sundaram, Op. cit. p. 317.
14. Gunasekaran, A Poverty and Development in Tamilnadu-A study , Jan-March, 1993, Economic and Political Weekly, www.jstor.org,p.109.
15. Ibid, p.110.
16. J.Selvarathnam, Where Sunlight Is Scarce :Changes In Cropping Pattern In Kanyakumari , Nov.1985 , Economic and Political Weekly, www.jstor.org, p.1961.
17. K.C.Alexander, Some Characteristics Of The Agrarian Social Structure Of Tamilnadu, Economic and Political Weekly, www.jstor.org p.665.
18. Ibid.
19. K.C.Alexander, Op. cit. p.655.
20. Selvarathnam. Op. cit. p.1961
21. Ibid.
22. Selvarathnam. Op. cit. p.1961.
23. Ibid. p.1962.
24. Selverathnam, Op. cit. p.1961.
25. Ibid, p.1961
26. Dutt and Sundaram, Indian Economy, 1975, p.313.
27. V.M.Rao and P.D.Jeromi, Modernizing Indian Agriculture: Indian Economy since Independence, p.260-61.
28. A.C.Mittal and Sanjay Prakash Sharma, Indian Economics:As overview on Agricultural Sector, Jaipur.