rjisacjournal.com

FORTS OF TAMILNADU: PLACES OF CULTURAL TOURIST INTEREST – A STUDY

Tamil Nadu has a rich cultural heritage, a fact which draws large number of tourists from India and abroad to this state.  Tall palms, taller gopuras and intricately carved temples are standing proud in a land of oriental lushness.1  Tamil Nadu is without doubt, the soul of the south. A land of palaces, forts, memorials, art galleries, museums, libraries,  buddhist and jain centres, places of historical significance and so on, Tamil Nadu is pulling tourists from all over the world.2  The gateway to South India, Tamil Nadu is an archives of ancient legacy, retaining its cultural steam side by side with its distinctive modernity.  Tradition bound,   the people of Tamil Nadu are deeply religious.3 The customs and the     rituals revolve around the religion are deep rooted.  The tradition of    cultivating the classical dance of Bharatanatyam4 and Carnatic Music5 is still alive and its performers have much respectability in the society. The great poet and master of Carnatic music, Thyagaraja6 is the most revered and the patron saint.   The cultural heritage of Tamil Nadu has been properly demonstrated by the existence of a number of traditional remains. The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) and the Department of Archeology, Government of Tamil Nadu are taking all necessary steps  to preserve the cultural heritage centres in the state.7  The Department of Tourism (DoT) Government of Tamil Nadu and the Tamil Nadu Tourism Development Corporation (TTDC) are keen enough to bring these cultural centres to the lime light of international community.8  The Statistical Reports   published by the Department of Tourism, Government of Tamil Nadu  and the TTDC categorically indicate the tourist flow in to this state is   mainly due to the cultural heritage tourist centres.9

FORTS

Athiyaman Fort

The Athiyaman Fort is located 8 km. from Dharmapuri on the Dharmapuri – Salem highway.10  The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) has taken over the site and is being protected by them.  At the centre of the fort site, an old temple called Chennakesawar temple is located which is believed to have been constructed by both the Vijayanagar and Hoysala kings.11  Paintings depicting Ramayana and Mahabaratha scenes are found inside the temple.  All the paintings belong to the period of 13th century A.D.  Poojas are conducted every Saturday by the Brahmin priests from Dharmapuri.  The place acquired its name after the Tamil king, Athiyaman Neduman Anji who ruled Thagadur (the present Dharmapuri) area.12

Danish Fort at  Tranquebar

Tranquebar, popularly known in Tamil as Tharangampadi is a small town situated some 32 km. from Nagapattinam on the shores of Bay of Bengal.13  The town consists of the Danish fort built in A.D. 1620 by the Danish settlers.  European maritime commerce made Tranquebar as one of the most important centre for sea transport and trade.  Navigation and commerce were the backdrop for the Europeans to gain foothold in this land.  It is nevertheless obvious that the ports of Tamil Nadu enjoyed a covetable fame. The European influx was infact a grand scale commercial war.  For all their commercial connections, sea-routes and navigation were facilitating reasons.  Portugese, Danish, French and English, all came here and retained their holds in making their respective plotted histories. It was such a condition of war in a medium of commerce and trade that Tranquebar became a strategic site and attained the status of a port,      where the historic fort was constructed by the Danish.14

Portuguese were the first among the foreigners who entered the Coromandal coast.  An agreement was reached between the Portuguese and Vijayaraghunatha Nayak of Thanjavur by which Nagapattinam was surrendered to  the  Portuguese.   The  president  of  the  Danish  Chamber  of commerce, Mr. Ovegedde took efforts to remove the Portuguese and appealed to the king repeatedly between A.D. 1611 and A.D. 1620.  Finally on 19th November 1620, the Danish got the pride of Tharangampadi port as its exclusive possession and the fort was constructed.  The fort houses an archaeological museum, Zion church constructed in 1701,15 Governor’s Bungalow built in 1784, Collector’s Bungalow built during the British rule and  a majestic  entrance arch built in 1792.  There is also an old temple built by the Pandya king.  The fort has steps and one can have a panoramic   view of the green surroundings and the sea from this fort.  It is presently under the control and care of Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) as a protected monument.  Of late, it has become a picnic spot and people do come to enjoy their weekends here.

Dindigul Fort

Of all the forts in South India, no other fort had seen such colourful past dating back to over three centuries, as the Hill Fortress of Dindigul, near Madurai in Tamil Nadu.16  It has survived the rise and fall of various Hindu and Muslim dynasties that held sway over this region till the British secured it finally.  This fortress has a very interesting historical background.  The huge rock on which the fort has been built can be seen  from any direction, from a far off distance before one approaches the town of Dindigul.17  It rises steep, almost perpendicular to a height of nearly 340 metres.  The monolithic rock, slippery and dangerous to climb except through the steps cut on one side, is about 400 metres long  and  200 metres  wide.  The huge block of rock resembles a thick cushion in its shape. The name of the town itself is derived from this rock ‘Dhindukal’ means ‘Pillow rock’ in English.18

As one ascends to the summit, an old dilapidated temple appears on the top.  This temple is fairly big in size with an imposing   ‘gopura’ and was dedicated originally to the guardian goddess deity of Dindigul Abirami Amman.  The fortress on the hill was built by the famous Thirumalai Nayak (1623 – 1659 A.D.).19 The fort was renovated and strengthened by Saiyyad Sahed who occupied this area and ruled from    1784 to 1790 A.D.  It was during his time that a series of rooms for billeting   his troops of army and strong rations and ammunitions were constructed. The monuments are in a fair state of preservation even today.  All the chambers in the fort are connected by secret entrances and, by an    ingenuity, though they are not provided with windows, fresh air circulates  from the ventilators on the ceiling, which are well concealed from the   terraces on to which they  open.20   Though these rooms resemble dark caverns, even in the hottest summer, one can  feel the cool atmosphere.

Inscribed below a magnificent arch crowing the main entrance to the fort       at the top of the hill, are the writings in Urdu script invoking the blessings of Allah for the safety of the fort and the residents inside.21

The Dindigul fort was of extremely high strategic value, as it was the only pass between Madurai and Coimbatore region.  With the victory of Chandasaheb, the long period of peace which had prevailed with the glorious rule of the Nayaks was broken.  The Dindigul fort was under the control of the Mysore rulers for just a decade.22  Venkatappa, who was   in charge of the fort found that the Poligars who were the regional chieftains under the Nayaks, and who still wielded considerable influence and power within their areas, were constantly conspiring to capture the fort.  This situation was secretly reported to the ruler of Mysore.  In A.D. 1755 the ruler of Mysore despatched Hyder Ali with a strong army.  Using Dindigul as his base, Hyder Ali subdued all the Poligars who were conspiring to attack the fort.23  It was then that Tippu Sultan set foot in Dindigul, his main mission being to collect the long outstanding arrears of tribute due from the Poligars. With the outbreak of the Second Mysore War in A.D. 1790    the Dindigul fort was besieged by Colonel James Stewart.24 This incident was notable since the fort, for the first time in its history, put up strong and stiff defence against the British army.  During this time, the British army strengthened the fort further by laying out pads for mounting cannons at intervals all round the terrace through the parapets.  Ultimately in A.D. 1792, the fort of Dindigul was ceded to the British under the Treaty of Mysore.25 From that year till today, the Hill Fortress of Dindigul has relapsed into a state of unbroken peace for nearly five centuries.26

Gingee Fort

The fortress of Gingee, about 150 km. from Chennai, is unique from the standpoint of defence and architecture.27  One of its gateways is  said to have been built with such ingenuity that even a small contingent, say of ten men, could hold against an army of ten thousand invaders.  The fortress of Gingee embraces a triangle formed by three high hills namely Krishnagiri, Rajgiri and Chandradurg, which are enclosed by an outer wall.28  Rajgiri, 600 feet high, is the highest of these  three  and  aloft  its  summit  stands  the citadel.  It is perched on an overhanging bluff of a ridge, which on three sides is surrounded by three walls 20 – 25 feet high and on the fourth side by a  narrow but steep ravine.29  The high-rising rocks and    the steep ravine make escalations or access to the citadel extremely difficult. The only access to the citadel from the north is by way of a timber drawbridge over   the ravine at a certain point.  Here the ravine was 24 feet wide and 60 feet deep.  Thirty feet beyond was a narrow fortified gateway whose flanking   walls were fitted with embrasures that were used for guns and musketry respectively.30  Each of the six other well – guarded gateways in succession made access more difficult. Besides these three hills that form a triangle, there is one more hill, known as Chakkili Durg, that also served for defence.31  Its summit was strongly fortified.

The fort has, besides guns, quite a few interesting monuments such as mandapas, temples, an eight-storeyed house, Kalyan Mahal for ladies of the household, a gymnasium, granary and a prisoner’s well to which prisoners were consigned to starve and die.32  The pit is now filled with rubbish.  Water supply in a fort is always a problem.  Gingee in this respect   is very fortunately placed.  On  the  summit  of  the  citadel  are  two  perennial springs of sweet water, and below it are three reservoirs for reception and storage of rain water.  The eight-storeyed Kalyan Mahal too did not go without water.  Water was brought to it by means of an earthernware  pipe from a reservoir about 500 metres away and outside the walls.33

Historians are of the view that the fort was built by the Chola kings whose rule came to an end in the 10th century A.D.  Later Gingee served as a stronghold for the Vijayanagar kingdom.  With the fall of Vijayanagar, its possession passed into the hands of Bahmani kings.34  In 1638, a combined division of the Bijapur – Golkonda army commanded by Shahji, father of Shivaji, captured it.  Thirty-nine years later, in 1677, Shivaji took the fort by strategem.  In 1689 Rajaram established his camp here.35  In 1690, the Mughal forces laid siege to it.  But the Mughal forces failed to climb the fort nor could they bombard it or stop communication with outside.  However, the siege continued for eight long years which affected the defenders. The campaign succeeded and the Mughals   captured a vast booty and took many prisoners, including four widows and five children of  Rajaram.

The Mughals had a standing army in Arcot and made Gingee  as their headquarters.  In 1750,  the  French  under  M. Bussy  captured  it  by a daring night surprise and the fort remained in their control for 11 years.36  Gingee’s climate is unhealthy and this too served as a deterrent for invaders.  The French lost 1200 soldiers.  Then, in 1761, the English laid  a siege and succeeded in capturing it after five weeks.  The last time  Gingee made history was in 1780 when Hyder Ali attacked it and the   English force played no important role and it passed into oblivion.  The ingenious use of rocks made Gingee a stronghold and provided it with maximum protection.  The rock fort of Gingee is indeed one of the finest specimens of the forts in Tamil Nadu.37

Krishnagiri Fort

Krishnagiri Fort which was considered impregnable came into prominence only during the Mysore wars.  The very appearance of the hill shows that it has been well chosen for the purpose since the bald and     rocky surface with hardly any vegetation to provide any hold, makes the ascent difficult even now.38  History does not provide any information as during whose period the fort was built.  However, history provides   information about the attempts of the British to storm the fortress once in  1767 and 1791.  But in between these two periods Krishnagiri surrendered    to the British which the troops of Hyder made no attempt to recapture.39

In 1792, the fort was handed over to the British as per the treaty of Srirangapatnam and the 15th Garrison was stationed here under the command of Capt. Read.  In 1799, under Robert Clive’s leadership, the    fort became the military headquarters of Baramahal.40  In 1801, an explosion of the magazine devastated a considerable part of the fortification and probably abandoned shortly after 1832.41

Odachi Kottai

Odachi Kottai is a small stone fortification now in ruins, covering an area of five acres of land and is situated about 4 km. to the south of Marthandam in Kanyakumari District.42   Rani Odachi, the mother of the famous ruler of Madurai, Thirumalai Nayak lived in this fort which was  named as Odachikottai, after her.  The  recent  tradition  is  that  Rani  Odachi  had  no issues for a long time, and on the advise of some priests, she came to Munchirai from Madurai and worshipped Lord Tirumalaiappan, the deity of the local temple.  The Fort was then, built at that time for her stay.43  It is said that the God blessed her with a child who was named Thirumalai.  When Thirumalai Nayak became the ruler of Madurai, he presented a gold crown and other valuables to this temple.44

Panchalamkuruchi Kattabommon Memorial Fort

Panchalamkuruchi is a small but historic village around 70 km. from Tirunelveli and 18 km. from Tuticorin.  From here, the great warrior Kattabommon, popularly known as “Veerapandya Kattabommon” raised  his voice against the British regime in the 17th century.45  The existing memorial fort was constructed in 1974 by the Government of Tamil Nadu.  The memorial fort has beautiful paintings on the walls depicting the  heroic deeds of the Saga which gives a good idea about the history of the period.46  Sri Devi Jakkammal, the hereditary Goddess of Kattabommon is located near the fort.  A cemetry of British soldiers is also seen near the fort.  The remnants of the old fort is protected by the Archaeological   Survey of India (ASI).47  At  Kayattar, near Tirunelveli, the place where he was hanged, there is another memorial for Kattabommon which is preserved by the Government of  Tamil Nadu.

Padmanabhapuram Fort

This fort lies about half a mile north-west of Udayagiri Fort,  on the southern road, 16 kilometres from Nagercoil (Kanyakumari District), and is overlooked by a hill to the north on which there is a redoubt built.48 The distance of the redoubt from the nearest bastion of the fort is 2540 feet.  The height of the redoubt is 220 feet above ramparts of fort.  This was at one time, the capital of Travancore.  The area of the ground enclosed within the fort wall is 186¼ acres.49 The space is for the most part filled up with houses (amongst the most noteworthy of which are the palaces of   the former Maharajas of Travancore and two famous temples).  There is also wet cultivation within, irrigated by a large tank situated at the north-east   corner of the fort.

The walls comprising the fort are 3 feet thick and built with granite upto 8 feet of the parapets, the remaining portion being laterite.  At  the four corners of the fort, there are four main bastions more or less of one size and shape.  One of these was evidently intended as a sort of watch-tower since it runs out to the summit of a detatched hill.50 The principal entrances into the fort are four gateways situated one on each wall and    there are also other smaller gateways near three of the bastions.51  The fort    is not overgrown with jungle.

Piranmalai Fort

Piranmalai fort is situated in the Ramanathapuram District, at   the bottom of a high and rugged mountain about 2500 feet high.52  It is very difficult to climb the summit as it is very craggy.  The hill in many parts  is covered by a deep jungle. Short way up the hill, there is a Bairavar  temple.  The top of   the hill has a military post.   An old cannon is still seen on the top of the hill   by the side of three bluff rocks.53 There is a mosque of Sheik Abdullah near a pond which is a place of pilgrimage for Muslims. Two tridents  (Lord Muruga’s weapon) have been planted a little way from  the mosque on a massive rock of the hill which are worshipped by  Hindus.  There are five pools in the rock called Pandava Thirthams.54

At the foot of the hill, there is the fort of Marudhu’s enclosing   the temple of Thirukkodungundreesan.  The fort can be seen only on a closer view of the construction.  To a distant view, it would look like a choultry at the foot of the hill.  The fort is constructed under a projecting precipice of the hill.  It has two walls.  The outer wall is about one to two feet in thickness and 15 to 16 feet high.  The inner wall is about 40 feet high cut  out of the rock with a parapet added above the  rock  portion.55   Inside  the  walls,  reservoirs  have been constructed for storage of water.  The English East India Company’s forces captured the fort on 18th September 1801,56 but no harm was done to the temple or the fort probably because the    natives employed by the Company considered it as dreadful sacrilege to do harm to the temple.

Thirumayam Fort

The Thirumayam hill fort is located hardly 2 km. from Thirumayam in the Pudukottai District.  This fort was constructed by the Setupathi of Ramnad Vijayaregunatha Thevar in A.D. 168757  It covers an area of 40 acres.  The fort seems to have originally a ring fort with 7 concentric walls and a broad moat all around.  It has three main entrances on north, south and south east, each provided with statues of Bairava, Hanuman, Sakthi and Ganapthy as guardian deities of the fort.58  The  walls above the rock which enclose the main citadel are well preserved. The fort contains magazine platform with mounted gun.  During the second Poligar war, the fort was used as arsenal depot by the British army.59 At present, the fort is renovated and is well managed by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).

Trichi Fort

The old fort of Trichirappalli is almost unrecognisable  except for the small ruined gate known as Mainguard Gate which exists  even today as the western entrance to it.60  It is stated that this fort was built during the period of Vijayanagar empire and it was strengthened by Viswanatha Nayak.61  With the fall of Vijayanagar empire, the fort could not be maintained properly and was very much neglected and in 1860 it was felt by the people that the walls of the fort must be removed, so that they could live in healthy environments.  Between 1866 and 1880 A.D. many parts of the fort which was in bad condition had been demolished by the local administration to broaden the roads retaining the main          guard gate alone.62

Udayagiri Fort

Udayagiri fort is situated near the Padmanabhapuram fort   on the Thiruvananthapuram – Nagercoil highways at Puliyoorkurichi, which was the most important military station of the Travancore rulers, when they were having  Padmanabhapuram as their capital.63   It  is  about  14  km.  from Nagercoil and 2 km. from Thuckalay and Padmanabhapuram.  Preliminary notification has been issued to declare it as a national monument.64 It is built of massive granite blocks around an isolated hillock, 260 feet high enclosing an area of almost 90 acres.  It was renovated      about the year A.D. 1600.  This fort was said to have been destroyed by Raja Raja Chola.  The fort was rebuilt in the reign of Marthandavarma, the then ruler of Travancore, during A.D. 1741-1744, under the supervision   of De Lannoy,   the Dutch general who served as the chief of the Travancore army.65 Foundary for the manufacture of guns, mortars and cannon balls were also established within the fort under the supervision of the general.

Since the early days, the fort was of strategic importance.  Prisoners captured in the campaign against Tippu Sultan were confined in this fort for sometime.66  In 1810, the English East India Company’s army under Col. St. Leger marched into the Travancore state through the Aramboly Pass to quell a rebellion under the leadership of Velu Tambi Dalawai.67 The fort was captured.  Colonel Welsh, in his “Military Reminicences” has recorded that there were 100 guns in the fort,  besides 50,000 stand of arms.  It is further said that a brass gun 16 feet long bored  as a 22 pounder, found in the fort, could not  be  removed  even  for  a  few  yards  by a large number of people, even with the help of 16 elephants.68   The Company’s troops were stationed there, till about  the  middle  of  the  19th century.

De Lannoy, a Dutch naval officer who served Maharaja Marthanda Varma loyally for 37 years, and was responsible for training his men in modern warfare. He lived in the fort with his family for several      years, and died on 1st June, 1777, at the age of 62.  His body was burried within the fort and a chapel was built on the spot.69  De Lannoy’s tomb in the fort is marked out by a stone cross planted on the top with inscriptions in both Latin and Tamil.  On the tomb stone are engraved the designs of trumpets and bugles.  Later the bodies of De Lannoy’s wife and son were also burried by his side.70  In the south-west corner of the fort is a traveller’s bungalow, facing the highway road.  There is also a camp shed near the traveller’s bungalow in the fort.  A few metres away from the traveller’s bungalow, an old Roman Catholic church built on the rock could   be seen.  On the same rock in front of the church, there is a  spring,  the  origin  of  which  is  attributed  to  Devesahayam  Pillai,  who  was an  officer in the Padmanabhapuram Fort.71 Neelakanta Pillai alias Devasahayam Pillai, a close friend of De Lannoy, was converted to Christianity under       the influence of the general.  As this was not liked by the  Travancore ruler,  he persuaded him to give up Christianity, but in no vain.72 It is said that Devasahayam Pillai during his imprisonment worked as a miracle.  He hit  the rock at this place with his elbow, and water gushed  out from the rock.  This rock is now called  Muttidicharparai.

Vattakottai

Vattakottai, a granite fort 6 km. north – east of Kanyakumari, forms the terminal of a line of ramparts known as the South Travancore Lines built by Maharaja Marthanda Varma to serve as defence for Nanjil Nadu.73  It is rectangular in shape and covers an area of about three and a half acres.  The fort is enclosed by walls, 25 to 26 feet high, including the parapet, 29 feet thick at the front, 18 feet at the corners and 6 feet at the rear.  The portion running into the area is most strongly built under the orders of De Lannoy.74  About A.D. 1810 the English East India Company’s forces under the command of Col. St. Leger marched into the Travancore  State through the Aramboly pass and demolished the defence lines.  The small river by the side of the fort, and the green vegetation all around add to the scenery of the fort and has now           become a holiday resort.75 It is said that  there is a subway or tunnel about four feet width, supposed to connect the Padmanabhapuram palace.  Now the tunnel has been closed.  The wall around the fort is repaired and fresh mortar is being applied.  From the evidences left by the fort itself, it may be presumed that this fort was the military base to protect the Kanyakumari port which was a rich pearl harbour.76 Since the emblem of the Pandya kings was ‘Fish’, and one can find this emblem in some of the places of the fort, it can be safely concluded that the  Pandya kings had control over this fort for sometime.  It is a picnic spot      and the sea is also calm and suitable for bathing.

Dr. K. Kumaran, Assistant Professor in History, Arignar Anna Govt. Arts College, Villupuram.

END NOTES

  1. The New Encyclopaedia Britannica, (London : Encyclopaedia Britannica INC, 2003), Vol. 11, pp. 530-531.
  2. V. Ganapathi Sthapati, The Sculptural Traditions of the Tamils, (Madras : IITS Publications, 1981), pp. 5-9.
  3. S. Thiruvenkatachari (ed.), Studies in Arts and Sciences, (Madras : Ram Brothers, 1978), pp. 2-6.
  4. Susheela Misra, Invitation to Indian Dances, (New Delhi : Arnold Publishers, 1988), pp. 15-24.
  5. T.V. Kuppuswami, Carnatic Music and the Tamil Literature, (Delhi : Kalinga Publications, 1992), pp. 228-229.
  6. M.S. Ramasamy Aiyar, Thiagaraja A Great Musician Saint, (New Delhi : Asian Educational Services, 1986), pp. 62-69.
  7. Ram Acharya, Tourism and Cultural Heritage of India, (Jaipur : RBSA Publications, 1980), p. 238.
  8. Ratandeep Singh, Tourist India : Hospitality Services, (New Delhi : Kanishka Publishers, 1996), pp. 211-215.
  9. Mukesh Ranga, Tourism Potential in India, (Delhi : Abhijeet Publications, 2003),  pp. 1-9.
  10. Buddhist Cultural Centres
  11. Jain Cultural Centres
  12. P. Pulney Andy Senji (ed.), Tamil Nadu District Gazetteers : Dharmapuri,   (Madras : Govt. Publications, 1995), p. 685.
  13. S.C. Bhatt (ed.), The Encyclopaedia District Gazetteers of India South Zone, (New Delhi : Gyan Publishing House, 1997), p. 1063.
  14. Manohar Sajnani (ed.), Encyclopaedia of Tourism Resources in India, (Delhi : Kalpaz Publications, 2001), p. 297.
  15. Tranquebar (Folder), (Chennai : Dept. of Tourism, 2005).
  16. S. Arasarathnam, Merchants, Companies and Commerce on the Coromandal Coast (1650 – 1749), (New Delhi : Vikas Publishing House, 1986), pp. 21-25.
  17. Frank Penny, The Church in Madras, (London : Smith, Elder & Co., 1904),  Part I,  p. 252.
  18. K. Lakshmi Narayan, Forts in Tamil Nadu, (Salem : Bagavathy Pathippagam, 1988), pp. 2-7.
  19. Dindigul Fort (Folder), (Chennai : Dept. of Tourism, 2001).
  20. B.S. Baliga, Madurai District Gazetteers, (Madras : Govt.  of  Madras,  1960),    pp. 380-381.
  21. R. Sathyanatha Aiyar, History of the Nayaks of Madura, (Madras : University of Madras, 1980), p. 85.
  22. Arnold Wright (ed.), Southern India Its History, People, Commerce and Industrial Resources, (London : The Foreign and Colonial Compiling and Publishing Co., 1915), p. 469.
  23. V.K. Raman Menon (Tr.), Michaud’s History of Mysore under Hyder Ali & Tippoo Sultan, (New Delhi : Asian Educational Services, 1985), pp. 17-20.
  24. Edward Gilliat, Stories of British Heros in India, (New Delhi : Inter – India Publications, 1985), pp. 70-74.
  25. Home, Select views in Mysore the county of Tippoo Sultan, (London : Bowyer Publishers, 1994), p. 30.
  26. J. Welsh, Historical Sketches of the South India in an attempt to trace the history of Mysore, (Madras : Govt. Press, 1869), Vol. I, pp. 213-217.
  27. B.S. Ward, Geographical and Statistical Memoir of Madura and Dindigul, (Madras : Govt. Press, 1896), Vol. 33, pp. 3-13.
  28. Madoms Taylor, Tippoo Sultan – A Tale of Mysore Wars (Reprint), (New Delhi : Cosmo Publications, 1986), pp. 152-158.
  29. A.K. Sheshadri, Ginjee Fort, (Chennai : Sekar Pathippagam, 1994), p. 69.
  30. R. Sathianathaier, Tamilaham in the 17thCentury, (Madras : University of Madras, 1956), p. 111.
  31. N. Balusamy (ed.), Valviyal Khazanjiam, (Thanjavur : Tamil University Publications, 1988), p. 356.
  32. K. Rajan, Archaeological Gazetteer of Tamil Nadu, (Thanjavur : Manoo Pathippakam, 1997), pp. 288-289.
  33. Manohar Sajnani, Op.cit., p. 298.
  34. C.S. Srinivasachari, A History of Ginjee and its Rulers, (Annamalai Nagar : Annamalai University Publications, 1943), pp. 351-359.
  35. S. Velayudham, This city of Madras, (Madras : Madras University Publications, 1957), pp. 55-56.
  36. Senji Fort (Folder), (Chennai : Dept. of Tourism, 2000).
  37. K. Rajayyan, History of Tamil Nadu (1565-1982), (Madurai : Raj         Publishers, 1982), pp. 78-79.
  38. M. Wilks, History of Mysore, (Madras : Govt. Press, 1970), Part I, pp. 169-174.
  39. R. Kulandaivelu, Tamilaka Selvankal (Tamil), (Chennai : The Progressive Publishing House, 1969) pp. 35-42.
  40. A.K. Sheshadri, Krishnagiri Fort, (Chennai : Sekar Pathippagam, 1995), pp. 3-9.
  41. Krishnagiri Fort (Folder), (Chennai : Dept. of Tourism, 2000).
  42. Villupuram District, A Connoisseur’s Treasure House (Folder), (Villupuram : Published by the District Collector, 2000), pp. 1-4.
  43. Important Tourist Centres in Villupuram District (Folder), (Chennai : Dept. of Tourism, 2000).
  44. M. Gopalakrishnan (ed.), Kanyakumari District Gazetteer, (Madras : Govt. of Tamil Nadu, 1995), p. 1181.
  45. S. Padmanabhan, Temples of Kanyakumari District, (Nagercoil : Kumaran Pathippagam, 1970), pp. 118-119.
  46. Personal Interview with Mr. Vasudevan aged 65, the Chief Priest of the Munchirai Thirumalaiyappah temple on 22.4.2006.
  47. S. Gajrani (ed.), History, Religion, and Culture of India, (Delhi : Isha Books, 2004), Vol. 2, pp. 184-185.
  48. N. Vanamamalai (ed.), Kattabommon Kathai Padal (Tamil), (Madras : New Century Book House, 1969), pp. 22-27.
  49. Tirunelveli (Folder), (Madras : Dept. of Tourism, 1990).
  50. Aswathi Thirunal Gowri Lakshmi Bai, Thulasi Garland, (Mumbai : Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1998), p. 49.
  51. Personal Interview with Mr. R. Gopalan, Archaeological Officer, Kanyakumari District on 20.04.2006.
  52. S. Padmanabhan, Historic Forts in Kanyakumari District, (Nagercoil : Kumaran Pathippagam, 1971), pp. 10-13.
  53. K.V. Krishna Ayyar, A short history of Kerala, (Ernakulam : Pai and Co.,  1966),  pp. 100-104.
  54. A. Ramasamy, Tamil Nadu District Gazetteers : Ramanathapuram, (Madras : Govt. of Tamil Nadu, 1972), pp. 937-938.
  55. K.R. Venkatarama Ayyar (ed.), Manual of the Pudukottai State (Reprint), (Chennai : Govt. Museum Publications, 2002), Vol. II, Part II, p. 1204.
  56. Piranmalai Fort (Folder), (Chennai : Dept. of Tourism, 2003).
  57. Tourism Centres in Ramanathapuram District (Folder), (Ramanathapuram : Published by the District Collector, 2005), pp. 1-4.
  58. James Welsh, Military Reminisances, (London : Smith Elder and Co., 1830), Vol. I, pp. 201-209.
  59. K. Sheshadri, The Setupathis of Ramnad, (Madurai : MKU Publications,  1982),   pp. 105-107.
  60. Thirumayam Fort (Folder), (Chennai : Dept. of Tourism, 2003), pp. 1-4.
  61. Madras Council, Revenue Consultations 8th November 1799, Vol. 98,     pp.2877 – 2882.
  62. K.S.K. Velumani (ed.), Gazetteers of Tamil Nadu : Tiruchirappalli District, (Chennai: Govt. Publications, 1999), p. 1610.
  63. S. Krishnaswami Ayyangar, Sources of Vijayanagar History, (Madras : University of Madras, 1919), pp. 103-107.
  64. Lewis Moore, Manual of the Trichinopoly District in the Presidency of Madras, (Madras : Govt. Press, 1885), pp. 43-46.
  65. V. Nagam Aiya, The Travancore State Manual (Reprint), (New Delhi : Asian Educational Service, 1989), Vol. I, p. 32.
  66. The Hindu, 20thOctober 2002.
  67. A. Sreedhara Menon, A Survey of Kerala History (Reprint), (Chennai : S. Viswanathan (Printers & Publishers) Pvt. Ltd., 2003),  p. 287.
  68. M.H. Gopal, Tipu Sultan’s Mysore : An Economic Study, (Bombay : Orient Longman Publishers, 1971), pp. 13-15.
  69. B. Sobhanan, Dewan Velu Tampi and the British, (Trivandrum : Kerala Historical Society, 1978), pp. 74-75.
  70. Kerala State Archives Nittus, Vol. IV, No. 202.
  71. C.M. Agur, Church History of Travancore (Reprint), (New Delhi : Asian Educational Services, 1990), p. 1158.
  72. B. Sobhanan, Ramavarma of Travancore His role in the consolidation of British Power in South India, (Calicut : Sandhya Publications, 1978), p. 72.
  73. S. Pushpadhas, Events in the Life of Martyr Devasahayam, (Nagercoil : Nanjil Pathippagam, 2003), p. 3.
  74. P. Pushpa Raj, Devasahayam Pillai The Martyr, (Nagercoil : Nanjil Book Stall, 1988), pp. 37-38.
  75. Census of India, 1981, Kanyakumari District Part – XIII A & B, p. 15.
  76. P. Shangoony Menon, A History of Travancore from the Earliest Times, (Trivandrum : Govt. Publications, 1878), pp. 115-116.
  77. M. Gopalakrishnan (ed.), op.cit., pp. 1224-1225.Ward and Conner (ed.), Memoir of the Survey of the Travancore and Cochin States, (Trivandrum : Govt. Press, 1878), p. 122.