Chandra, T* and A, Kumaraswamy**
*Research Scholar, Bharathiyar University, Coimbatore 641007.
**Associate Professor, Department of History, V.O.C College, Tuticorin.
Abstract
The social life of the people of South Travancore was crammed with many problems. The caste system was a dominant feature of Travancore society. The low caste women were not permitted to wear upper-cloth. They wore only a piece of coarse cloth called mundu stretching from waist to knees exposing their breasts and such dress restrictions were very much affected the depressed people of South Travancore. The Christian Missionaries were astounded to see the worst social condition; they enlightened the people through their education and social awakening. With the encouragement of Christian Missionaries, the Nadar women showed remarkable courage resisting the social restrictions imposed on them by the customs of the antique society. This became a fabulous societal movement in the South Travancore including Kanyakumari District and it was called the Upper-Cloth Revolt.
Introduction
The State of Travancore had its own set of laws till the middle of the nineteenth century, that were oppressive of lower castes. The caste system was a dominant facet of Travancore society. The society was generally divided into higher and lower castes. The former enjoyed all privileges in society, while the latter was denied social, political and religious rights. Hindus and Non-Hindus were the two major religious divisions in the State. The Non-Hindus were Christians, Muslims, Jains, Buddhists and Jews. Hindus, on the basis of caste were divided into two, the Savarnas and the Avarnas. Savarnas were the high caste Hindus such as Nambuthiris, Brahmins and Nairs. The Avarnas were the low caste Hindus includes Nadars, Ezhavas, Pulayas and Parayars1. The Avarnas women were not permitted to wear upper cloth. They wore only a piece of coarse cloth called mundu stretching from waist to knees exposing their breasts2. Low caste women appearing before the high caste people covering the breasts was considered as an insult by the high castes3. The prolongation of such dress restrictions were very much affected the depressed people of South Travancore including Kanyakumari District.
Kanyakumari District of the State of Tamil Nadu, was part of the Princely State of Travancore during the colonial times prior to the Nation’s independence and they were made a part of the Madras Presidency under recommendations from the States Reorganisation Commission in 1956. The Nadars formed a majority in the district and distributed in all the Taluks namely Agestheswaram, Thovali, Kalkulam and Vilavancode. They are generally agriculturists and their mother – tongue is Tamil. Their women used to enlarge their earlobes and wear an ear ornament called Pampadam4. They were also using upper-cloth or the sari over the shoulder from time-immemorial. However, they were under the oppression of Nairs, a secondary community in the southern Taluks exercised much power on the Nadars5 and they were not permitted to use upper-cloth and hence an agitation started in the district immediately after the arrival of the Christian Missionaries.
Christian Missionaries came to India to extend their religion. Although they were astonished to see the worst social condition prevailed in the society and felt that superstition was the main reason for all the evils. They liberated the people through their social activities and educated the people about the brutal social customs that were prevalent in South Travancore including prohibiting and preventing the Nadars women to cover their bosoms6.
Origin of Upper-Cloth Revolt
The Christian Missionaries of the London Missionary Society who came to Kanyakumari District found it that more than seventy per cent of the upper halves of the body of Nadar women were left uncovered. Further, in places around Neyyatinkarai, where the Malayalees lived the way of dressing with the upper part of the body uncovered under the array of civilization just as the women of high rank, this disgraceful form of dressing evoked contempt in the minds of the Missionaries7. They wanted to eradicate this awful social evil; consequently they made a representation to Colonel Munroe.
Colonel Munroe who was the Resident of the British East India Company in Travancore met Lekshmi Bai, who was the Maharani of Travancore and very much interested in introducing liberal reforms, as a result Colonel Munroe issued an order in 1812 permitting the Ezhava and the Nadar women converts to Christianity to cover their bosom like the women of civilized countries8. Subsequently in 1814, during the supremacy of Rani Gowri Lakshmi Bai Col. Munro, issued another order to the same effect. This added the strength of the Christian women9. However, it did not permit them to wear upper cloth in the manner of the caste Hindus or the upper caste. According to the tradition of Travancore, the high caste women were allowed to wear upper cloths upon their shoulders. But, the low caste women were not allowed to wear upper cloth. The intolerant Missionaries felt that the low class women also had the right to wear upper cloth i.e, “TholCheelai” thus they advised the Christian women too to wear upper cloth10. This paved the way for the outbreak of the First Upper Cloth Revolt in 1822.
First Upper Cloth Revolt 1822
The low caste women were allowed to use upper cloth to cover their bosom like the high caste ladies; this were distasteful to the caste Nairs and they raised riot in many places of Kanyakumari District, mostly at Kalkulam and Eraniel. The struggle first started in Kalkulam Taluk, in May 1822, a few Nadar women went to the church covering the upper part of their body with a jacket. They were physically abused by the Nairs, their cloths were stripped off11. The Nadar and other Christian converts felt that they were insulted and hurt by the Nairs. The Missionary, Charles Mead reported the matter to the British Resident, Col.Newel in Travancore, who successively ordered for an immediate enquiry12. Meanwhile, the Nairs filed a complaint, in the Court against the Nadar Christians that, they were not paying tax for wearing upper cloth and also stated it was a disgusting breach of the ancient customs and practices. As a result a verdict was passed in favor of this effect13. However Rev. Mead and his Christian followers could not accept the decree. They appealed to the government against this verdict14. The Court considered the appeal and passed a decree in 1823 in favour of the Christian women to wear upper cloth15.
Second Upper Cloth Revolt
The upper-cloth riot became serious when Lord William Bentinc assumed power as the Governor General of India. His orders were that the East India Company Officers should not interfere with the internal administration of the States16.The Christian Missionaries and the propagandists were much upset by the non-intervention policy. The Missionaries could not bring to the notice of the Resident who was the administrator of the Company or the Governor of Madras, the atrocities committed against women continued17.
Lord William Bentnic’s policy of non-intervention in the internal administration of States encouraged the State officials and the Nairs. The Nairs started their struggle against Christians in Vilavancode, Kalkulam and Eranial Taluks. They beat the Christian women wherever they met them and tore their saris. They frightened the Christian while going to Church on Sundays dressed neatly. They tore the books of Children who went to Christian Schools and threw them on the streets. They tortured the Christians who refused to work on the Sabbath day by tying them to the hind legs of elephants. They set fire to the houses of Christians in Attoor18.
The riot became more serious and lasted for many months, consequently Charles Mead and Mault sent petition to Resident Col. Morrison to protect the Christians from the outrages of Nairs. The Madras Government felt very sad and sent Captain Cibald who helped Rev. Mead.
Further, under the orders of Colonel Morrison, the Resident despatched a section of European troops from Trivandrum to South Travancore. Besides, the 15th Regiment of the Madras Presidency infantry marched as much as Aramboly through the Southern region. The Nairs were alarmed, and the riots stopped at the appearance of these troops, but many suffered in prison19.
Regarding the tortures, the Missionaries sent a petition to the Dewan and the Maharja and also to the Madras Government. In that petition they reported that many Christians were tortured. The Resident directed Dewan Venkata Rao to conduct an enquiry into the matters. Dewan Venkata Rao conducted an enquiry and issued an order in February 182920. According to that order those who were converted to Christianity were allowed to wear kupayam, a loose jacket and also exempted from oozhiam service on Sunday21. However they were not permitted to dress like the Nair women. Finally a Proclamation was issued by H.H. Parvathi Bai on 03.02.1829. According to that Proclamation Christians were allowed to work on all days except Sundays. The law also permitted any subject to embrace any religion as they like; but they should get permission from the Government to build Churches or Schools. It also forbade the Christians to send petitions to any alien officers without respecting the local officials22. The missionaries were not happy with the order of 1829. Rev. Mead felt that the Proclamation was an order to abolish the escalation of Christianity. The order did not bring any relief to the Christians. Hence, the Missionaries thought that relief measures should be given to this distress23.
Third Upper Cloth Revolt (1855-1859)
The Government order of 1829 did not find a cordial solution to the problem of upper cloth. This order only Christian woman was directed to wear upper cloth and other people grew envious and it was highly insulting to the caste Hindus. In1857 the Sepoys raised revolt against the British due to socio – economic and religious disparity. After the revolt, in 1858 Queen Victoria issued a Proclamation that the British had given up the plan of take over the State. The power and status of the Princes would be respected and would not interfere in the local administrations, customs and conventions and practices of the Indians24. This made the high caste people triumphant. They began to question the Missionaries and set fire to the Churches, and Schools of the Christians. They tore the upper cloth of the Nadar woman and the situation became worse than before. The Nadars united and opposed it. The Missionaries met Resident Cullen and Maharaja and appealed them to interfere. Mr. Cullen, who was the Resident at Trivandrum at the representative of the British Queen came to the conclusion that if the Missionaries had admitted women into Christianity with blouse only but without the sari over the shoulder. Nevertheless it was the principle of the Missionaries to have blouse and petticoat as the dress for women; they knew that no one would become a Christian, if they insisted on the removal of the sari over the shoulder. The Missionaries were afraid of the atrocities of the high caste people, hoped to have the sari on the shoulder removed by the orders of the Government25.
In an attempt to get relief for the Nadars who were being tortured, Rev. Cox and other Missionaries complained to the Madras Government against Dewan Krishna Rao and Resident Cullen and many pamphlets were published. An English newspaper from Madras published the atrocities that were happening. Rev. Cox also wrote to the Viceroy in Delhi. The Viceroy who accepted the complaint and wrote to the Madras Governor to set up an enquiry committee26. However, the Madras Government did not take any immediate action and no enquiry committee formed till 1858. In the mean time, Dewan Madhava Rao who had seen all the intricacies at the riot over the wearing of sari over the shoulder was able to satisfy the British Monarchy and Travancore Government. However, the high caste people were continued the riot.
During 1859, the Missionaries continuously forced the government to issue favourable orders. In February 1859, a memorandum was submitted to the Maharaja by the Missionaries, and favourable orders were issued27. Another petition was submitted to His Excellency Charles Trevellyan, Governor of Madras28. He advised the Travancore Government to look into the matter immediately; but it had no effect, and the Government intensified the atrocities. But, the Governor was receiving letters regularly with full details from the Missionaries as well as from other Europeans. The Governor disappointed and sent a strong letter to the Travancore Government saying that if cannot suppress this atrocity, the respect of the women will be safeguarded at the point of the gun. The news warning by the Governor spread throughout Travancore. Apprehension of further tragedy from the English troops, the high caste people hesitated to continue the riot. The Nadars felt sorry that the troops did not enter into the villages where high caste people lived. The missionaries were satisfied that no further destruction took place.
On 26.07.1859 His Highness Uthiram Thirunal Marthanda Varma Maharaja made the Proclamation that the, “Nadar women can dress the upper parts of their body above the hip in any respectable way they wish; however they cannot wear sari over shoulder like the style of clothing worn by upper class women”. Thus, the Proclamation did not control the tension immediately; it gradually subsided as the social and economical status of Nadar’s advancement in subsequent decades with significant support from Missionaries and Ayya Vaikundar.
In 1858, fresh violence broke out in several places in Travancore against the Maharaja of Travancore by Nadar caste. This movement was originally initiated by the Christian converts of the caste in the Travancore kingdom. On 26 July 1859, the Governor of Madras Presidency, Sir Charles Trevelyan, pressured the Travancore king; the king issued a Proclamation leading to the restoration of equal rights to wear upper cloth to all Nadar women. With the encouragement of Christian Missionaries, the Nadar women showed remarkable courage resisting the social restrictions imposed on them by the customs of the antique society. The upper cloth movement by the Nadar women brought a new incentive for the Nadars to join in Christianity. They got an upper hand in the Protestant Mission through education and social awakening.
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